Module 5: Sociological Issues in Educational Development Today (Notes)
(b) Social inequalities: the Why’s, how’s and ramification for social development. Theories and Perspectives
(c) Gender inequality: The historical origins and trends in Africa, East Africa and Tanzania, and efforts towards corrective or remedial action
(d) Gender mainstreaming: Theory and strategies in gender mainstreaming policies and processes
Sociological issues
There are issues that explain something about society. The society is not equal or not homogeneous. In the society there are classes hence inequality in societies. Education create classes in society, education is a tool of dis-equalization. Due to education, society is classified into:
1. Elites
2. Masses
The society is not homogenous (there is classes or strata) as individuals are not equal then the society is made up of numerous social groups (classes). That means the class of those people who are more capable in terms of wealth and also ruling others and this class is called the elite class.
On the other hand we have the group of those who are subordinate, incapable and always ruled by others; this class is known as masses.
Elite theory
Elite theory is a theory of the state which seeks to describe and explain the power relationships in modern society. Then Elite theory of government is a theory that describes the power relationships within a society. The theory maintains that a very small group of the elite hold the most power within a government body.
Elite are able to have significant power over policy decisions of a corporation and or a government.
Structure of the contemporary society
To Peter C. Lloyd the structure of contemporary African society has two categories i.e. Elites and masses, and the formation of elite group in society can be explained by two schools of thought:
a) Marxists Perspectives (the radical school of thought)
b) Liberal (conservatives) perspectives
The Marxists school of thought (Radical school of thought because it challenges other theories that explain formation of elite and non elite)
MST believes that contemporary African society is characterized by the high degree of the class formation. Marx said that in any mode of production e.g. Feudal lords form one class of ruling, exploiting and dominating major means of economy.
The other class is the serfs; this is another class which is dominated. It has no power in resources, in decision making so it is a ruled class.
The Liberal (Conservative)H
This doesn’t concentrate on class formation but concentrated in socio stratification. In this stratification you must have few people who are at the apex. These few people who are at the apex is the elite class and the rest is the group of masses. According to this approach society has individuals who are intellectually, morally and physically different.
Classical elite theory
Vilfred Pareto and Gaetano Mosca
These two made investigation of social inequality. To them the society can be divided into
a) Lower stratum which is the group for non elite who are the majority.
b) Superior stratum are those individuals who are governing. This is a group of elite.
These went further classifying the elite into subdivision. There are two subgroups:
- The governing elite: these are people who are purely in administration i.e. president, prime minister etc. they involve in governing directly
- The non-governing elite. These do not involve directly in governing for example teachers, DC’S. They indirectly play some considerable issues in the government
The major characteristics of governing elite
- It may be close or open; it is open when it allows a person from non-governing to join them and when it is closed it doesn’t allow a person from non-governing to join them.
The process of movement of non elite into elite or vice versa is called circulation of elite.
Application of the ideas in Africa
Peter C. Lloyd concentrated on West Africa and mainly on Nigeria; however his theory is applicable in Africa and Tanzania in particular. He divided societies in Africa into two categories; the Elites and the Masses.
Lloyd classified elite into three subdivision as well as masses.
The elite group is subdivided into:
a) Elite proper presidents, ministers
b) The marginal sub elite is a group who are not actually not be elite but those waiting to be moved up. Have power but not full.
c) Earlier traditional elites -are at the lower rank i.e. the DC’s, Sec school teachers, regional executive officers
He describes elite as a small, homogeneous and cohesive group with a similar background.
The masses divided into three
a) Urban workers - those working in urban
b) Migrants workers – those who always shift from one place to another trying to see if they can improve their life
c) Rural peasantry is the large section of the masses
The groups within the masses are not very different from each other; the same applies to the groups within the elite.
Differences between Pareto and Mosca ideas with Lloyd idea
Mosca and Pareto clarify society into two classes which are elite and masses while Lyord is more detailed. Pareto based on elite and non elite only but Lloyd was detailed and broad. Pareto based on elite and non elite only and Lloyd classification provides detailed explanation of both elite and masses.
Who are the elite?
Elite are the people who have western education and worth to higher degree relative to the masses of population. In this case the bureaucratic, university lecturers, politicians and secondary school teachers are example of elites.
Weakness of the definition
a) The definition underrate the power of local indigenous (rulers) who were there before whites e.g. Mkwawa, Isike, Kabaka e.t.c.
b) Lloyd classification and formation of elite mode belongs to the modern theory which is more concern with western educated elite therefore it marginalized other groups like workers, peasant and business people.
The relationship between formal education and elite formation
The national education pyramid we have reflects the social stratification in the society (show that pyramid i.e. University, tertiary education, secondary, primary etc.). That means that education (formal education) is a reason for stratification pattern in the society (therefore, stratified society = stratified education).
The higher education where the elite are prepared is another reason for the role of education for elite formation. The higher education has a lowest participation rate.
Gender inequalities in education
The way people are related is an imbalance in terms of status, acquisition of resources etc. it is a state where by people or individuals are treated unequally or imbalance. This imbalance is also be reflected in the provision of social services such as education. The basic categories for inequalities are as follows:
a) Gender based inequalities
b) Social class poor or rich
c) Race or ethnic based inequalities
d) Religious based inequalities
In terms of education provision, inequalities are highly observed e.g. in 1961 African race: 2.0 compared to other races. Uganda and Kenya were much better in terms of children representation compared to Tanganyika. 85% of professional posts were held by the foreigners. Within 15 posts of Tanzanians, there were only 12 civil Engineers, 5 Chemists, 1 forest person, 38 sec teachers out of 600; all these statistics lacked the representation of women. There were few initiatives and programmes established to deal with the emerged problems. They include:
a) The provision of higher education was for free i.e. no fees and all the costs are shouldered by the government.
b) UPE and EFA to ensure that all the children country wide access education. This was under Musoma Resolution.
Causes of ineualities
1. Geographical or regional inequalities
This is an historical issue which started during colonialism. Colonialists appointed some productive areas which they were favoured e.g. Kilimanjaro. Tanganyika was divided into cash growing areas and labour supply areas. The productive areas influenced even the missionary settlements hence established more schools compared to labour reserve areas.
2. Rural - urban inequalities
Many schools built during colonialism were either in towns or very close to it. The areas developed in rural areas were productive areas. Rural were fore agricultural production and urban were for technical purposes especially at lower levels. The focus therefore was in urban areas than rural areas
3. Religion
The missionaries are directly responsible for this for both Christians and Muslims. Christians had more access to education than Muslims. The missionaries influenced the people of their own to attend schools. Both Christians and Muslims played a great role in provision of education however the Christian missionaries dominated
4. Gender inequalities
This is another way in which the society is classified due to the status given to men compared to women. This is a social constructed item. Gender in most areas determines who is to be sent to school. Gender has not only influenced different between men and women but has also affected the decision making of educating girls. Women access chances for education differ in different areas and society. There is another aspect among themselves according to
- Muslim vs Christian women
- Urban-rural women
- Level of affluence
- Regions etc.
Gender
The term gender refers to the culturally and socially determined characteristics, values, norms, roles, attitudes and beliefs attributed to women and men through constructed identity in a society. Gender relationships differ from one social setting to another and can change from time to time. Gender refers to the social relationship or roles and responsibilities of men and women, the expectations held about the characteristics, aptitudes and likely behaviours of both women and men (femininity and masculinity) that are learned, change over time and vary within and between cultures.
Sex refers to the biological difference of women and men.
Gender equality
Gender equality refers to equal and fair treatment of women and men members of a community in provision and access to goods and services required to meet their social needs. It includes fair treatment before the law, the undeniable right to life by each member of the community
Generally in Tanzania there is no gender discrimination in terms of accessibility to education. Equal access to education does not guarantee gender equality since there is still some inequalities like the results in exams
Gender equity
Equity is synonymous with fair opportunity in access to social services. Gender equity therefore means fair opportunity and access to social services for both women and men.
It refers to equal opportunities. It is not equal but FAIRENESS or justices. It is a situation were by at least women and men get satisfied i.e. it is just or fair treatment. Balance of both female and male in distribution of resources.
Gender steriotyping
Gender stereotyping is a way of thinking that persists in people’s attitudes and practices and is also often reflected in policies and laws of a country or community.
Normally the media portray men as bosses while women are portrayed as servants or messengers. This situation creates different status between the two genders. This is stereotyping. Stereotyping is not the biological setup but socially portrayed. Stereotyping is a way in which men and women are portrayed in
- Books
- The society
- Media
- Drama
- Language
It is the wrong way of portraying men and women since it does not reflect the reality of biological nature rather in biased portray towards one gender. Eg women are portrayed as people who can wash utensils very effectively. While piloting of the aircraft very intelligently is done by men.
Gender relations
It is a social relations established by the society. In any society, gender relationship is influenced by how men and women behave towards each other i.e. how men behave before women and vice versa. It explains power relations between the two (super ordinate and subordinate).
Gender Division of Labour or Gender division of labour
Gender division of labour refers to the classification and allocation of tasks for women and men in managing domestic and community activities. Gender division of labour inflicts gender stereotyping
One can also say these are socially defined or prescribed activities and responsibilities which has been allocated to be performed by girls and boys women or men in the society. They are not necessarily determined by biological make up but cultural specific, contextual framework, influence of time and technological development.
Types of gender roles
- Reproductive role
Involve child bearing and child rearing child bearing and rearing which is both the responsibility of women.
These roles however are often carried by women.
- Productive role
These are roles connected to economic oriented activities. Question. Who should produce, and what?
For women, rearing children, cooking and food production appear to be major role.
For men, hunting, looking after cattle, building, protecting families and production are their activities.
Note: You can also talk of social roles of women and men
Gender discrimination
Gender discrimination occurs when one sex is treated either better or worse than the other on the basis of sex. It is how you exclude someone from doing something
In some situations, women are excluded. Discrimination takes many forms like:
- Religious discrimination
- Education discrimination
- Ethnicity etc.
It therefore refers to different treatment of people basing on their gender (rejection of people) because of his or her gender e.g. Denying a qualified civil engineer who is a woman to supervise a construction of a bridge
Gender Oppression
Gender oppression is a result of imbalance of power between women and men. Gender oppression occurs when one sex is treated in cruel, harsh manner or made to feel uncomfortable or unhappy in socio-economic and political life.
Gender Mainstreaming
The definition of gender mainstreaming utilized by this paper was developed by the Council of Europe:
Gender mainstreaming is the (re) organization, improvement, development and evaluation of policy processes, so that a gender equality perspective is incorporated in all policies at all levels and at all stages, by the actors normally involved in policymaking.(Council of Europe 1998: 12)
Gender mainstreaming is not a goal in itself but a strategy to achieve equality between women and men. It involves a process of change and transformation which implies that all actors involved in policymaking integrate gender-equality concerns.
This concretely means integrating a systematic consideration of the differences between the conditions, situations and needs of women and men, the relations existing between them, and differentiated policy impact on the concrete lives of women and or men in the planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of all policies, programmes and activities. This policy strategy also aims to have both sexes influencing, participating in and benefiting equitably from all interventions. The main goal of gender mainstreaming is to have both sexes able to enjoy equal visibility, empowerment and participation in all spheres of public and private life.
This is a situation of involving people in whatever in done in consideration of both men and women. It is not replacing men by women but consideration of both in all policy making. Putting together in one place i.e. avoiding discrimination
It is a process that takes gender concerns into accounts (of every aspect in like leadership, education, religion) systematically from problem statement to implementation strategy. GM is making girl or women and boys or men issue integrated in all plans, strategies and implementation i.e. design, budgeting, monitoring implementation, planning and evaluation so as that all can participate and benefit equally. The ultimate goal of GM is social transformation.
Why or Rationale for Gender Mainstreaming
- Recognition that development policies impact female and male differently hence the need to ensure that the needs of both are taken on board during policy development, implementation
- The need of collective process of articulating a shared vision of sustainable human development and translating it into reality (through policy, programmes and budgets) hence the need for the effective participation of both women and men.
- Recognition of the need for a combined strategy to address women empowerment issues including selected focus of channeling assistance to women, as a target group, to a more mainstreaming approach of promoting gender equality as a development goal.
- It is a commitment to ensure concerns and experiences of both women and men are integral to the design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of all legislation, policies and programmes
- It concerns the staffing, procedures, programmes and culture of development organizations
- Recognizes gender equality as critical to the achievement of other development goals including poverty reduction
- It advances women to reach their developmental potential since programs and policies will be analyzed from the perspectives of men and women.
- It minimizes negative impacts by ensuring that needs and concerns are addressed.
- It ensures development programs and policies are people centered and sustain the effects of development.
The government of Tanzania has undertaken various efforts in mainstreaming gender in development policies, programmes and strategies through the following ways:
Tanzania is a signatory to various international human rights instruments which bind it morally, and legally to adhere to equity policies and non discriminatory policies in the development process.
The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), Convention on the Rights of Child (CRC); Beijing Platform of Action etc. and Regional and Sub Regional instruments: SADC Declaration on Gender and Development, African Charter of Human and Peoples Rights of 1981 (ACHPR); Women’s right Protocol on Harmful Practices.
> GOT has ratified ILO Declaration on the Fundamental Principles and Human Rights at work. These instruments bind the government morally and legally to pursue non- discriminatory policies and development programmes and processes. In this case, there are tools developed by GOT and ILO for gender mainstreaming by government employers.
> The vision (2025) Focus is to attain human development and achieve a fully developed economy. The vision has been operationalized through PRSP I and II (MKUKUTA), that has addressed gender in the key outcomes areas and targets.
> Equality Principles are enshrined in the Tanzanian Constitution through incorporating the bill of rights and bans discriminations on all grounds including those based on sex. The constitutional also provides for affirmative action to redress gender gaps or imbalances in decision making.
> The Government revised the Women Development Policy 1992 to a Gender Policy in 2000 mandated the Ministry of Community Development Gender and Children (MCDGC) for overall national coordination of gender issues in the country, including development of Strategic Plan on Gender by the MCDGC (2006).
> The GOT has provided for legal framework including domesticating CEDAW and passing 3 laws that promotes women’s rights: Sexual Offences (Special Provision) Act (SOSPA, 1998); Land and Village acts (1999).
> Government (through MCDGC) is facilitating number of gender institutionalization process in various Sectors for example, establishment of gender focal points, capacity building and training on gender; gender budgeting initiatives has been adopted and is institutionalized in selected sectors.
> Some Government reform Programmes have taken gender as one of the components. For instance, the civil service reforms program, education reforms etc. Other specific gender programmes in the education, health, water, agricultural sectors and TACAIDS.
> GOT has adopted the Gender Budgeting Initiative (GBI) and including gender in budget guidelines, It is also involving CSOs in the engendering of budget GOT has adopted the Gender Budgeting Initiative and is involving CSOs in the engendering of budget.
> There is collaborative efforts between CSOs actors and individual Government sectors e.g. campaign promoting women and girls
Challenges for mainstreaming gender in policy formulation/ programmes/ strategies
> Limited adoption of gender mainstreaming approach from the beginning of policy processes i.e. from situation or problem analysis, prioritization or policy choices, implementation, M and E and impact tracking
> Limited and uncoordinated institutional mechanism for gender mainstreaming at national or Sectorial levels.
> Information and knowledge gaps: Lack of Gender Disaggregated data in most of the Government sectors and Department such as Health and Education.
> Difficulty in developing tangible gender indicators because most of the gender indicators are qualitative
> Lack of technical backstopping to support on gender mainstreaming efforts at various levels.
> Unsustainable institutional gender capacity – including conceptual clarity on gender mainstreaming (skills, systems, tools, accountability) for effective implementation and monitoring at both GOT, CSOs and Donor agency level.
Girls educaction in East Africa
Girls in East Africa lagged behind in terms of education compared to boys. Most of the schools were for the boys. Boys were favoured compared to girls. The first high school in east Africa for girls is Gayanza in Buganda 1905. Boys’ education started in 1890s
The first Africa girl to acquire or sit for Cambridge certificates education were 3 girls from the catholic church in Uganda in 1941. Only two of them passed the exams. The first Tanganyika girl to sit and pass the Cambridge certificate exams was in 1951 in Uganda. Girl’s education lagged behind in Tanganyika since the British government didn’t support education for girl.
From 1950s, colonial education was typically pyramidal in favour of boys. For every 2 boys enrolled, there was one girl i.e. the ratio 2:1.Girls were also dropping down following several problems like pregnancies.
Some statistic showing pyramid
In 1958: Tanganyika 1st grade; boy 57 and girls 33. Uganda – the same date above started eight was in terms of %: Boys 4.8% girls 1%.
This is for those who went to secondary education;
Kenya 10% boys 2.3% girls and Tanganyika 4.5% boys and 0.9% girls for viii. For standard xii the % decreased
Uganda 0.6% boys 0.05% girls
Kenya 0.61% boys; 0.04% girls
Tanganyika 0.14 boys; 0.01% girls
Interventions for equity in Tanzania
Tanzania has experimented with gender affirmative actions and other corrective measures but does not have an all embracing gender equity policy. However three bold moves worth noting have been made. These include:
a) The quota system: The quota system introduced in 1972 was one such bold step. The intervention directed that girls and boys should be in separate baskets during selection to secondary schools. Then for each basket there should be regional and district quotas. This ensured that each district and region had children selected to go to secondary schools, with the long term of achieving equality by gender and locations.
b) Girls secondary education scholarships: the scholarship covered school fees to include texts books for the girls, parents have to cover other expenses.
Other interventions in the education system
a) Creation of girls streams in traditional boys sec schools i.e. Pugu and Minaki
b) Creation of more boarding places and hostels for girls especially in rural areas
c) Relaxation of Form five selection criteria such that girls can join high schools with 5 passes as opposed to six for boys and can join science based courses without passing in mathematics while boys have to
d) University entry for girls use a lower cut off point compared to the regular one particularly in science programmes.
Strategies and efforts used to increase women enrolment
UDSM and Makerere have already taken some practical measures to promote and increase number of female students that in the long run could increase number of teachers or lecturers. These are as follows:
- UDSM has initiated a pre entry science programme for girls to increase the number of female science and Engineering students at the university. The programme provides six weeks pre entry remedial course for admission of female candidates who qualify for B. Sc Programme and engineering, but whose A-level results do not reach the cut off point for admission into B. Sc (Education) programme and engineering.
- Both Universities initiated an affirmative action programme for girls under which the cut off point for admission is lowered by 1–1.5 points for women, this enabled more female students to gain access to the both Universities.
- Both Universities launched a scholarship programme supported by Carnegie Corporation of New York for female undergraduate students.
- Giving a tuition waiver of 20% to female students to join University under the Human Resource Development Trust Fund Schemes operating in the Faculty of Engineering, currently College of Engineering and Technology. This is initiated by the UDSM.
- Giving women priority in campus accommodation, which currently not much considered by the UDSM.
- Nonetheless, scholarships for Post Graduate female student’s studies have been provided since 1994 or 95 by the UDSM through several donors. A good example is 20 female students who are sponsored each year and more female students under Open Scholarship.
- The Gender Dimension Programme Committee (GDPC) was established at UDSM to organize the scholarship programmes as a way of addressing the gender imbalances in students’ enrolment and its big objectives is to bridge the gap in student enrolment at UDSM. On the other side, University of Makerere introduced The Gender Mainstreaming Division as a strategy for ensuring equity between female and male respectively in students’ enrolment and staff recruitment which consider gender balance.
Factors limiting women’s access to education
The source of all of this gender inequality in education has been identified by several researchers who did their studies in the different places and in different time. However there are studies done by (Mbilinyi, 1969, 1991; Malekela, 1983; Bendera et al 1998; Moshi, 1996, Kakonge et al, 2001 and Kwesiga, 2002), the common reported factors are;
- Family factors
Most of the African families are economically poor; therefore the available resources are invested to boys rather than girls, due to the parental perception that a girl is going to be married, that they are not going to benefit from her rather her husband. However, girls are mostly engaged in household chores such as cooking, looking after young and others like collecting fuel wood and water. Kwesiga (2002) and FAWETANZANIA-DBSPE (1999) argue that girls are expected to perform more domestic tasks and at the earlier age than boys, therefore they have less time than boys to do their schoolwork.
However parents’ attitudes and their traditional division of labour between boys and girls reduce the chances of girls’ access to education.
- Influence of the society or societal influence
The society’s structures and values i.e. from the smallest unit, the family to the largest, the state, combine with regional and urban or rural inequalities to exert a strong negative effect on women’s advancement to higher education. To society, higher education is regarded as consumption rather than investment.
- The influence of institution
Girls face institutional barriers than boys. For instance, girls are more likely to choose arts subjects, reducing their chances of wider options in technical and science based courses. At secondary level, they are not full participants in co-education while the day schools for them present greater obstacles. By the time they reach higher education entry level, their numbers are reduced and yet they have to face further filtering.
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