What are the relationship between school discipline and academic performance in Christian seminaries versus ordinary secondary schools in Tanzania mainland
Background to the problem
The provision of quality education and training is the ultimate goal of any educational system. This goal can never be achieved without school discipline. Discipline in school is a very important aspect towards academic excellence, while lack of it usually gives rise to a lot of problems such as lack of vision and mission, poor time management, irregular attendance and punishment. By definition discipline refers to the ability to carry out reasonable instructions or orders to reach appropriate standards of behaviour. It is understood to be that abstract quality in a human being which is associated with and manifested by a person’s ability to do things well at the right time, in the right circumstance, without or with minimum supervision (Ngonyani, 1973:15).
Various studies have been conducted on issues pertaining to schools’ academic performance, such as those by Malekela (2000:61), Galabawa (2000:100) and Mosha (2000:4). They have pointed out some factors that lead to varying levels of performance in schools, including availability of teachers, availability of teaching and learning materials and language communication. A few scholars such as Omari (1995), Okumbe (1998) and Galabawa and Nikundiwe (2000) talk about school discipline as one among aspects that influence performance in schools. School discipline is an essential element in any educational institution if the students are to benefit from the opportunities offered to them. Omari (1995:38) argues that it is difficult to maintain order and discipline in schools where teachers have no space to sit, prepare and mark students’ work. In other words, Omari (1995) supports the above scholars that availability of teaching and learning materials has an impact on school discipline. Galabawa and Nikundiwe (2000:203) argue that hardworking and devotion on the part of teachers and students is among of the factors for school success. Furthermore, Maliyamkono and Ogbu (1999:72) add that, it is impossible to talk of disciplined teachers and students where there is no cooperation and rapport between the school and the community around.
In addition, it is common to hear parents, teachers and students themselves complaining about indiscipline in schools. The Swahili slogan “huyu amesoma lakini hajaelimika” meaning that “one has attended school but is not educated” is becoming talk of the day in many secondary schools. The reason for such kind of comment is that there is a general impression among the educational stakeholders that secondary school students are undisciplined as they are not abiding by school rules and regulations. Occasionally there are protests, riots and violence and sometimes the police have to come in to intervene to protect school property. Some schools become virtual prisons as they construct huge walls and expensive fences to check abscondment and to protect good students, teachers and property against undisciplined students. For example, in Nipashe news paper of March 30th, 2007 there was a Swahili report “wanafunzi wa shule ya secondari Ikhonda watupwa jela miaka sita baada ya kuharibu mali ya shule” meaning that “Ikhonda secondary school students sentenced to six years in jail for destroying school property”. In addition to that in 2008, Mtanzania May, 30th had the title: “wanafunzi wa shule ya sekondari Mwakaleli Mbeya wafanya fujo na kumjeruhi mwalimu wao” meaning that “Mwakeli secondary school students in Mbeya region riot and injure their teacher”. Ohsako (1997:7) argues that violence is a sensitive issue that provokes anxiety, arouses emotions and has negative impact on school performance.
Despite the presence of rules endorsed by the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training they are not followed by many of the students and their teachers in some government and private schools, who misbehave wherever they are outside the school environment. As Omari (1995:25) observes, the most important thing is not so much to have written rules pinned in the office of the head teacher or discipline master as to have rules actually implemented. School rules and regulations should facilitate administrative work, should focus on the creation of a good atmosphere for teaching and learning.
For several years now there have been concerns by various people and groups regarding the deterioration of the quality of education in secondary schools. Against a background of these concerns and complaints, one is duty-bound to avoid blanket blames and generalizations but to take an objectively discriminating analysis of those educational 23
institutions whose quality has really declined vis à vis those that have maintained or even raised the standards; of the characteristics of such varying categories of schools; the circumstances surrounding differential performance among them; as well as the varying levels of discipline associated with different school categories.
Generally, religious denomination affiliated schools, i.e. seminaries, have frequently been associated with claims of good discipline (hence with academic success) as compared with public and other private schools. To verify such a claim it would be necessary to take an historical perspective of school performance at a national level, by school category, over time.
Table 1.1 comprises a list of the first ten (best performing) schools in the national examinations over a 15-year period after every interval of three years from 1992 to 2007. It is observed that, for each of the year indicated, the majority or else a considerable number of these best schools are Christian-affiliated seminaries, while only a few such as Ilboru and Mzumbe government-owned schools, rank among them.
On the other hand, Table 1.2 lists ten least-performing schools in national examination results for the same period. While almost all of them are public schools directly owned managed by government or directly owned and managed by local communities or trusts, there is not a single seminary counted among them.
On the basis of the factual data in Tables 1.1 and 1.2 above, there was a need to investigate any possible influence that might exist between type of school, ownership and management characteristics and academic performance or success.
Statement of the problem
The survey of the results of the national Form Four Examinations in Tanzania for 15 years now, from 1992 to 2007, indicates an undebatable dominance of Christian seminaries in the top positions.
Despite numerous studies that have been carried out such as those by Malekela (2000:61), Galabawa (2000:100), Mosha (2000:4) and Omari (1995:38) that look for factors associated with academic performance in schools, little has been investigated on discipline, particularly with respect to religion-affiliated institutions, in this case Christian seminaries in comparison with ordinary secondary schools. A study into this issue is thus imperative that would focus on how school discipline can be identified or defined, factors of its existence or absence in schools, and the principal determinants of school discipline in relation to academic performance in schools. The issue of discipline has become a matter of concern to many educators today. There is a need to address the issue of indiscipline in schools if they are to meet the academic and social needs of all students and the society in general. It is generally accepted that schools differ in their effectiveness as places of learning. As one single category, seminaries have been performing well in the sector of education when compared with those under public or community ownership; but little has been published on the nature and level of school discipline as a causal factor, or even as a co-relate, of academic success in these institutions. It is expected that such a study might lend some insights and lessons to educators and other schools that are high or least performing as well.
Purpose (objectives) of the study
The general purpose of the study was to examine school discipline as the determinant of academic performance in Christian seminaries in comparison with other, ordinary secondary schools. Specifically, the study attempted:
To examine the extent to which school discipline influences academic performance in schools;
To investigate how school rules and regulations are formulated and enforced in schools
To examine the extent to which the management order and style for the school plays a role to maintain school discipline.
Significance of the study
The significance of this study can be judged by the following advantages to be accrued:
Firstly, the study essentially generates knowledge on what actually parents, teachers, students and education officials perceive as to the importance of discipline in academic performance in schools. Secondly, it establishes a base for formulating rules which can be adhered to by teachers and students. Thirdly, it serves as a guide to teachers, community, education officers and administrators as to what key issues are related to school discipline for purposes of enforcing in school situations. Lastly, findings act as stimuli for further research related to the school discipline and performance in general.
Theoretical basis
For the most part in the period of education worldwide, the concept and knowledge of discipline was narrowed and circumscribed. The idea of punishment was predicted upon the punishment model. Traditionally discipline in school was mainly associated with punishment and fear. Punishment was considered necessary as a disciplinary measure in the schools and therefore used as a means to maintain “good discipline,” often referring to conformity and order in schools. In this case, punishment as a social institution is intended to control, correct or bring into the desired line the behaviour of an individual or group of individuals. However, corporal punishment was often problematic and it is still a problem today, unless strictly monitored. Gossen (1996:30) and Omari (2006:131) argue that punishment does not teach the correct behaviour, it destroys even the opportunity to demonstrate the acceptable behaviours. From the age of eighteen onwards there is a growing opposition to any use of physical force in disciplining individuals.
This view brought to the surface two opposing views on discipline and these are in line with Douglas McGregor’s Theory ‘X’ and Theory ‘Y’ assumptions about people (McGregor, 1960:3-57). There are those people who regard discipline only as a punishment as applied to Theory ‘X’ assumptions. In schools, for example, a teacher or a student just does not want to follow the code of behaviour. To make them disciplined threat punishment, control, rewards and incentives have been seen to be the most effective measure in maintaining discipline in schools.
Another group of people are those who are against corporal punishment. Among these are educational philosophers and psychologists (Wilson, 1971 and Newel, 1972). They look at discipline as a process of encouraging teachers and students to behave more uniformly, towards meeting the objectives of education. This group of people are applying Theory ‘Y’ assumptions about people. They argue that external coercion and control are not only means for bringing about effort toward organizational objectives. Management can not provide a man with self respect, but to create conditions that would encourage self-discipline. Punishment in school according to them creates in the child a tendency towards blind imitation and fear. On the other hand, Omari’s conceptual framework for Quality Assurance (1995:25-45) was also integrated with Theory “X” and “Y” assumptions by providing the basic school and extra-school inputs to reveal connectedness in bringing out influence of school discipline and academic performance. Within McGregor’s Theory “X” and “Y” assumptions and Omari’s Model, the relationship between “discipline” and “academic success” in a school setting can be construed as per researcher’s conceptual framework in Figure 1.1.
Research tasks and questions
Three research tasks guided the researcher to obtain information relevant to the problem. Each task was informed by relevant questions:
Research task one:
To examine the extent to which school discipline influences academic performance in schools
Research questions
What are the common discipline-related problems among teachers and students that tend to hinder smooth teaching and learning in schools?
Why do teachers and students tend to violate schools rules and regulations?
Research task two
To investigate the ways school rules and regulations are formulated and enforced.
Research questions:
Who are involved in the formulation of school rules and regulations?
How are these rules and regulations made clear and agreeable to both teachers and students?
What kind of punishment is given when students break school rules and regulations?
Research task three:
To examine the extent to which the management of the school plays a role to maintain school discipline.
Research questions:
How does the management of the school ensure that teachers and students keep discipline towards fulfilling their duties and responsibilities?
What methods does the management of the school use to make sure that there is an amicable relationship between the school and the community around?
What type of consideration does the school management take into account on the choice of school premises?
What strategies do teachers use to make sure that their students perform better?
Definition of the key terms
Discipline refers to a form of the logical and educative order which must be learned if one is to understand what is involved in doing something. According to Ngonyani and Manase (1968:), it is understood to be that abstract quality in a human being which is manifested by person’s ability to do things well at the right time, without or with minimum supervision. This study has adopted this definition.
Academic performance is an ability to display through speaking or writing what one has learnt in the classroom. Academic performance usually encompasses a range of factors such as knowledge and skills, qualification of teachers, teachers’ and students’ commitment and success of school management (Gipps 1991:42).
Seminary is a religious training college or institution for priesthood ordination. In the common context in Tanzania, a seminary is a secondary school which offers both academic and religious instruction and may lead either to priesthood or to higher levels of academic training and qualification.
Rector is a member of the Christian, particularly the Roman Catholic clergy who is in charge of Catholic congregation or college. However, in this research the term Rector will only refer to the head of a Christian seminary.
Congregation: According to this study, a congregation is a group of people with common faith living together in an association for religious purposes.
Delimitation of the study
This study was focused only on the influence of school discipline and academic performance in Christian seminaries in comparison with ordinary secondary schools in Tanzania mainland. The researcher of this study used only ten (10) schools (six Christian seminaries and four ordinary secondary schools) which delimit the representativeness and generalizability for the whole situation at the national level.
Limitations of the study
The study encountered some limitations; in most of the sampled secondary schools respondents were either busy preparing for mid term tests or on mid-term break and Form Four Mock Examinations. For example, Kwapakacha Secondary, Form Four were busy for Mock examinations other preparations. To overcome this limitation, only Form Three were contacted for the study. Maua Seminary Form Three were in mid term break and so Form Six students were included to bridge this gap. On the other hand, some interviewees in both types of schools were busy marking examinations and other official responsibilities and some of the heads were not available. The researcher continued to follow up for an extra two weeks until the appointments were fulfilled. This affected the time schedule though in the end did not alter much the planned accomplishment procedures. However, it is hoped that in concentrating on a small sample of church-affiliated institutions, vis à vis another kind of schools, some unique observations were made that might have qualitatively different bearing on practice on the educational system in general.
Organization of the study
The study is organized into five chapters. Chapter one is concerned with the problem which informed the study and its context and defines the need for this study. Chapter two focuses on the review of literature relevant to the study. Its main concern was to identify the knowledge gap. Chapter three presents methods of investigations and procedures to address the problem and the knowledge gap. Chapter four discusses the research findings of the study which are presented under sections according to research tasks and questions. Chapter five presents a summary of the study and findings, conclusions and recommendations for practical actions as well as for further study based on the research findings.
Literature review
The previous chapter attempted to justify the rationale for this dissertation. In this chapter the literature relevant to the relationship between school discipline and academic performance in schools is reviewed accordingly. The chapter is divided into sections: the concept of discipline, types of discipline and different views of school discipline in the global context, and principles of setting good practice in setting disciplinary actions. It also surveys the determinants of school discipline and finally identifies the gap to be filled.
Concept of discipline
Traditionally, discipline in school administration meant punishment that is pain and fear. To some discipline can connote something negative as obeying orders blindly, kneeling down, doing manual work, fetching firewood and water for teachers and parents, caning and other forms of punishment. Bull (1969:108) associates this as physical discipline that leads to threatening condemnation to a child.
Indeed discipline involves the preparation of an individual to be a complete and efficient member of a community; and a disciplined member of a community is one who knows his or her rights and his or her obligations to their community. This means that the individual must be trained to have self control, respect, obedience and good manner (Ngonyani et al, 1973:15). Okumbe (1998:115) and Galabawa (2001:23) see discipline as an activity of subjecting someone to a code of behaviour that there is a widespread agreement that an orderly atmosphere is necessary in school for effective teaching and learning to take place. Discipline, according to Gossen (1996:25) and Lockes in Castle (1958:126), is reasonable in the eyes of those who receive it and in the eyes of a society as a whole. It is expected that the rules are known by all and are consistently enforced. In order for an action to be good, discipline must also be reasonable. A person is able to deny himself or herself to his or her desires and serves for others.
Types of discipline
According to this study only two types of discipline were investigated: positive and negative discipline as identified by Umba (1976), Bull 1969) and Okumbe (1998). The first type, positive discipline is sometimes known as self discipline. Self discipline is the kind of discipline that comes from the aims and desires that are within the person, where there is no element of fear (Umba, 1976:8). Okumbe (1998:116) relates positive discipline with preventive discipline, providing gratification in order to remain committed to a set of values and goals. It is encouraged self control, individual responsibility in the management of time, respect of school property, school rules and authority, good relationship between students and teachers. Bull (1969:108) associates self discipline with psychological discipline that seeks to reason with a child so that he or she may understand the folly of the particular offence and build up moral concepts.
The second type of discipline, negative discipline, occurs when an individual is forced to obey orders blindly or without reasoning. The individual may pretend to do good things or behave properly when superiors are present but once they are absent quite the opposite is done. For example, a teacher may behave well before his or her head of school, perhaps in pursuit of something like promotion or other favours. Likewise, students may behave well when their teachers are present, but resort to mischief as soon as they are out of sight.
Different views on school discipline
There are different views on teachers’ discipline and on students’ discipline as stipulated in the literature. The first view is that teachers’ discipline is concerned with how teachers behave and conduct themselves. An effective school can be successful when teachers become model of good discipline. Normally students learn by observing how teachers behave. Manase and Kisanga (1978:6) and Cleugh (1968:92) argue that a disciplined teacher is one who abides by his or her code of conduct and employment contracts. He or she is the one who fulfils the expectations of the school as well as society at large.
The second view on school discipline is students’ discipline. It is how students behave in and outside the school. A disciplined student is one who abides by school regulations, respects the school timetable and does what is expected of him or her by teachers (Manase and Kisanga, 1978:16). A disciplined student demonstrates self control, individual responsibility in the management of time, and sensitivity of matters of self conduct and relations with others.
Principles of setting good practice in setting disciplinary actions
The following five are some of the principles as applied in setting disciplinary action in a school (Okumbe, 1998:119):
Prior knowledge of rules and regulations
The educational managers must ensure that all staff members are informed about the terms and conditions of their employment and the rules and regulations of the organizations in which they work. This should be done during orientation or induction course. The students should also be well informed about the organization’s rules and the consequences of breaking them. Gnagney (1969:14-15) and Omari (2006:130) argue that indiscipline is often caused by ignorance of the rules and inability to adhered to multiple and sometimes conflicting rules that frustrate intelligent individuals. When school rules and regulations are not fair and clear to teachers and students they are always broken.
Immediate application of disciplinary action
Educational managers must ensure that any undesirable behaviour either by a staff member or by a student is dealt with immediately so that the offenders can see the close connection between an undesirable behaviour and its consequences. The association between the undesirable behaviour and consequences becomes weak when there is a long term lapse.
Consistent application of disciplinary actions
This is to say that educational managers should ensure that similar offences are dealt with in similar ways. If there are variations in the way similar offences are dealt within an organization there is the likelihood of a general discontent by the clients.
Objective, non prejudiced disciplinary actions
An effective disciplinary action must be on facts not inferences. An educational manager must, therefore, carry out a thorough research to ensure that the offence was actually committed by the said staff or student before a disciplinary action is taken
Allowance for the right of appeal
The right of appeal is very important in democratic disciplinary processes. Staff and students must be allowed to defend themselves against the offence for which they have been charged. Otherwise they may be punished for an offence they never committed.
Determinants of school discipline
Exemplary academic performance is the function not only of one factor but many factors in combination. Several scholars have tried to investigate essential factors that determine discipline in schools. These factors include school infrastructure, the managerial dimension, school rules and regulations, quality of human resources and student-teacher ratio. Proper working of the essential factors depends on school discipline. Absence or improper balance of these may lead to poor academic performance. The following are the principal factors:
Managerial dimension
Omari (1995:39) and Mosha (2006:23) argue that the overall effective management of any school is directly influenced by the way in which its managers allocate resources, communicate with staff, students and the wider community. Mosha (2006:17) maintains that good leadership should be able to establish levels of commitment and accountability systems to ensure this commitment is met. Gossen (1996:26) argues a head who plays the role of an absolute dictator may be direct or indirect cause of deviant behaviours.
Availability and efficiency of school infrastructure
The school infrastructure includes school libraries, laboratories, dormitories, classroom, classroom facilities and teachers’ houses and offices. The availability and efficiency of school infrastructure assures better performance, provides a certain amount of security and builds self-discipline in both the teachers and the students.
Quality of human resources
Any discussion of quality of human resources in relation to school academic performance must take into account teachers’ qualifications on the one hand and students’ selection and admission requirements on the other hand (URT, 1995:41). Quality education can only be provided in a context where teachers are well trained and competent. Omari (1995:31) and Njabili (1999:29) maintain that teachers are expected to be creative, innovative and visionary. Quality of teachers creates security and hope for students to dream for a better future, while a questionable quality of the teacher raises anxiety and doubts among students who, with time, may rise up in protests.
School community relationship
A school, according to Okumbe (1998:10), is a processing device through which the educational system meets the aspirations of the society. The strong relationship between a school and the community, according to Mosha (2006:206), therefore adheres to the principle of transparency and thus tries to maintain discipline and order in school.
Motivational factor
According to Okumbe (1998:40), motivation may include materials offered such as salary, fringe benefits and public recognition. Mosha (2006:208) asserts that motivation promotes group cohesion. Group cohesion promotes a sense of trust and commitment, and such a sense promotes a sense of discipline. Omari (2006:321) maintains that motivation increases competence or personal mastery and self direction.
Regular assessment and feedback
Regular assessment and feedback provides useful information that can be used to judge progress made and they give teachers and students an opportunity to take remedial measures to improve performance. Cleugh (1968:94) and Omari (1995:40) argue that in order to maintain students’ discipline in the classroom children should have plenty of work to do, such as tests and impromptu quizzes.
Effective financing
Mosha (2006:139) and Galabawa (1994:45) maintain that effective financing helps to create a positive school climate. It is a catalyst that makes everyone in an academic institution committed, while inadequate funding may be a source of conflicts in school due to lack of necessary facilities to keep education institutions in normal running.
The number of students vis a vis the number of teachers
A balanced teacher student ratio is of advantage to the students as well as to the teachers. With a balanced teacher-student ratio students have ample time to contact and dialogue with their teachers because of the available time, and control of the class becomes easy. A proportion of one teacher to more than 30 students has been taken as too large, while a teacher-student ratio of 1:20 or less is too small, making teacher virtually under employed. An optimal proportion in Africa is 1:23 and that of the world falls between 1:20-45 (SEDP, 2004:8 and Carnoy, 1998:43).
Literature gap
A few of the studies that have examined the factors of academic performance in Christian seminaries have focused more on managerial skills and availability and efficiency of resources. These studies reviewed included Hemedi (1996), Galabawa et al (2000) and Lyamtane (2004). However, little has been said or investigated regarding a possible connection between academic performance and the state of school discipline both in these religiously founded educational institutions and in relation to (in comparative reference to) ordinary secondary schools, particularly the least (“worst”) performing ones as indicated by national examinations results. The study intends to fill up this gap in the literature.
Research methodology
The previous chapter presented related literature review through which the knowledge gap related to the research problem was identified. This section presents the methodological procedures used in the collection of the relevant data and its analysis to fill the identified knowledge gap. It describes the methods and the procedures which were employed in the process of data collection and analysis. More specifically, the chapter focuses on the research design, geographical setting of the study, population, sample and sampling procedures, methods of data collection, and techniques of analyzing the data. Other aspects include validity and reliability of the study instruments and ethical issues and considerations.
Research approach and design
Research design is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted. It is a logical sequence in which the study is to be carried out, and constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measuring and analysis of data (Kothari, 1990:132). The research employed mainly qualitative approach and with some elements of quantitative approach for examining the extent to which school discipline influenced academic performance in Christian seminaries in comparison with other ordinary secondary schools. The study sought to investigate how both teachers and students were responsive to discipline. The concurrent triangulation approach was deemed relevant as it enabled the researcher to use various methods to conform, cross validate, or corroborate findings within a single study. The study employed largely the descriptive case study design to describe the characteristics of particular individuals or groups. The U.S General Accounting Office (1990) in Merterns (1998:166) defines case study as a method of learning about a complex instance, based on a comprehensive understanding of that instance. The choice of this design was influenced by the purpose of this study as reflected in chapter one. A case study design has an advantage of focusing on “how” and “why” questions (Yin, 1994). Thus, case study design enables the researcher to gather deep information about the relationship between school discipline and academic performance.
Area of the study
The study was conducted among ten secondary level institutions on mainland Tanzania. Six of these were Christian seminaries selected from among the top (best performing) institutions in the national examinations results, while four were ordinary (“lay”) secondary schools selected from among the last (least-performing schools).
Thus guided by documented NECTA results over the past 15 years, the best-performing Christian seminaries selected included Maua, Uru and St. James seminaries (Kilimanjaro region), St. Peter’s and Kasita seminaries (Morogoro region) and Visiga seminary (Coast region). On the other hand, the four ordinary secondary schools selected from among the worst performers academically included Haneti, Pahi and Kwapakacha secondary schools (Dodoma region) and Kashozi secondary school (Kagera region).
Population Sample and Sampling Techniques
Target Population
The term population refers to a large group of people, an institution or a thing that has one or more characteristics in common on which a research study is focused. It consists of all cases of individuals or things or elements that fit a certain specification. Fraenkel and Wallen (2000:103) denote that a population is the group of interest to the researcher from which possible information about the study can be obtained. The targeted population of this study included all students, teachers and heads of schools in Christian seminaries as one category and similar members in ordinary secondary schools as a second category. These were 96 ordinary level secondary schools as indicated in Tables 1.1 and 1.2. When considering the time and financial factors involved in a study of institutions of such magnitude, it was not possible to conduct this study in all such schools in the country. As such a representative sample in the population was selected, bearing in mind that some aspects gained from a representative sample were adequately generalizable to the whole population.
Population sample
A sample is a smaller group of subjects drawn from the population in which a researcher is interested for purposes of drawing conclusions about the universe or population (Kothari, 2004:157). Leedy (1986:210) adds that the results from the sample can be used to make generalization about the entire population as long as it is truly representative of the population. In this study, six seminaries were sampled to represent the Christian seminaries among the top ten, while the four ordinary secondary schools represented the bottom ten in the second category. Altogether, the ten secondary schools were chosen representing the key characteristics of the total population. The categories of sample respondents and their number from each school add up to 160 of the total population sample. The sample respondent categories included 10 heads of schools, 10 discipline masters or mistresses, 40 teachers and 100 students.
Sampling procedures
Sampling procedures that were employed in this study included purposive sampling, stratified random sampling and simple random sampling.Purposive sampling in this study involved the selection of those participants who portrayed the key characteristics or elements with the potential of yielding the right information. According to Fraenkel and Wallen (2000:112), purposive sampling is an occasion based on previous knowledge of a population and the specific purpose of the research investigators for use in personal judgments to select a sample. In this study the purposive technique was employed to select category of schools, heads of schools and discipline masters or mistresses.
Schools: Ten schools that informed the study were purposively selected following the number of frequencies they appeared in either the first ten (best-performing) positions or the last ten (worst-performing) schools over the 15-year period i.e. from 1992-2007 at interval of three years. Six Christian seminaries were obtained from among 25 top ten (best performing) institutions, where four Christian seminaries that had appeared between five and three times were targeted due to their high frequency and other two were obtained through simple random selection from the rest that had frequented two times. The similar procedure was also used to obtain any four among 71 ordinary secondary schools that constituted the bottom least (worst-performing) schools. The seminaries which have shown the highest frequency in attaining the first ten position are indicated in Table 3.1 and those schools which have the highest frequency in attaining the least ten position are indicated in Table 3.2
Discipline Masters or mistresses: A discipline master or mistress, one in each school, was included in the sample because of their position and responsibilities about discipline. They assist heads of schools in dealing with day-to-day disciplinary issues in their respective schools. They were selected purposively because it was also assumed they had adequate information on school discipline, that is discipline of teachers and students and about implementation of all matters of discipline.
Teachers: Teachers were included in the sample because they had relevant and reliable information about discipline matters in schools. Stratified sampling was employed to select teachers on the basis of their experience in teaching and long service in a particular school. The stay in schools included the categories of 1-3, 3-5 and above five years. These have varying levels of knowledge and involvement in discipline matters over time. After then, a total of four teachers in each school were randomly selected from strata of their teaching experience and stay in a particular school. Finally, one experienced teacher from the four respondent teachers in each school who had stayed in the same school for not less than five years was also selected for interview.
Students: This category of respondents was selected to provide information on the influence of school discipline and academic performance in schools. Students were selected through stratified random sampling on the basis of their stay in the school by including those in the Form Three and Form Four or Form Six. They were selected because they were in the high class levels and it was assumed that they had adequate knowledge and involvement in discipline issues in their respective schools. Simple random sampling was employed to select five students from each class. Therefore, ten students were selected from each school. The researcher wrote on small pieces of paper: “included” and "not included” which were then mixed up. The students were invited each to pick one piece of paper. Those who picked “included” formed the sample of the study.
Data Collection
Data collection refers to the process of obtaining evidence in a systematic way to the research problems. This study used two main sources of data as follows.
Sources of data
Primary Sources of Data: Primary data are original sources from which the researcher directly collects data that have not been previously collected. They are first hand information collected through observations, interviews and questionnaires (Krishnaswami, 2002:197 and Kothari, 2003:95). The study collected primary data from the heads of schools, discipline masters/mistresses, teachers and students through questionnaire, interview and observation.
Secondary Sources of Data: These are sources containing data which have been collected and compiled for other purposes such as readily available compendia and already compiled statements and reports. This type contained published or unpublished reports (Krishnaswami, 2002:199). Secondary data were collected through document search on the disciplinary issues.
Methods of data collection
In this study the following techniques were employed to collect information. These include documentary review, interview, observation and questionnaire.
Documentary review
Document search was used in this study. The method entailed data collection from carefully written official school records or documents. The information collected through the review of documents enabled the researcher to cross-check the consistency of the information collected through the questionnaires and interviews (Borg and Gall, 1993). In the light of this study, document such as punishment record sheets were consulted to obtain the kinds of punishment given, and the written records on number of students selected for some tasks or awards and the number of teachers associated with some events was also obtained. The use of documentary review enabled the researcher to record some information regarding the kinds of misbehaviour and punishment given to the offenders and to obtain some information regarding the general performance as well as individuals (Appendix A).
Interview
Interview is a scheduled set of questions administered through oral or verbal communication in a face to face relationship between a researcher and the respondents. More information and in greater depth can be obtained and it allows flexibility as there is an opportunity to restructure questions (Kothari, 2004:98).In the nature of this study both structured and unstructured interviews were employed to collect rich and deep information on discipline related issues from the heads of schools, discipline masters or mistresses as well as experienced teachers (Appendix B, C and D).
Observation
By the help of observational checklist the researcher observed teaching methods used by teachers during teaching learning activities in the classroom. For instance, how students interacted among themselves or with their teachers and how they behaved in general. Furthermore, the researcher observed the number of physical resources such as libraries, laboratories, teachers’ houses, offices, students’ dormitories and number of classrooms and classroom facilities. The data obtained through observation complemented the data gathered through interviews, questionnaires and documentary review. (Kothari 2004:96) indicates that observation increases the chance for the researcher to obtain a valid and credible picture of the phenomenon being studied. The method thus helps the researcher to have an opportunity to look at what is taking place in the situation. Besides, he argues further that this method tends to eliminate subjectivity and bias in data collection and it gives accurate information relating to what is actually seen in time and place (Appendix E).
Questionnaire
The questionnaire consists of a mixture of open ended and closed-ended questions. Open-ended questions offer more freedom to the respondents to answer the questions while closed ended question items limit the respondents to specificity of the responses for purpose of quantification and approximation of magnitude. In this study questionnaires were administered to both teachers and students for obtaining information concerning their understanding and perceptions of the link between school discipline and academic performance. This method was chosen because a lot of information from a large number of people can be collected within a very short time and it is economical in terms of money and time, for there is a possibility of mailing them. As Kothari (2004:105) maintains, questionnaires are relatively easy by which the researcher can administer the questions and collect a considerable amount of information (Appendix F and G).
Validity and reliability of the study instruments
Since there is no single data collection technique that is by itself sufficient in collecting valid and reliable data, the study used multiple data collection techniques. These procedures refer to the strategy of using several different kinds of data-collection instruments, in which one instrument complements another. The main job of the researcher was to look at the relevance, consistency and validity of the instruments to be administered for ease of elaboration, clarification and proper interpretation. Before the field study, the research instruments were pre-tested at Morogoro secondary school in Morogoro region as it is assumed to have characteristics similar to the rest of other educational institutions intended for study. Correction, modification and adaptation were then effected accordingly so as to suit the purpose of the study. In the field, the researcher increased the reliability of data by clearly explaining the purpose of the study to the respondents and clearing some doubts raised by respondents.
Data analysis procedures
Data analysis is a process that implies editing, coding, classification and tabulation of collected data (Kothari, 2003:122). Since the study involved both qualitative and quantitative data, the data analysis was done both qualitatively and quantitatively.
Qualitative data analysis
The data collected from interviews, open-ended questionnaires and documentary review were subjected to thematic analysis, which was carried out by designed detailed descriptions of the case study and using coding to put themes into categories. Thus, the data collected from the heads of schools, discipline masters or mistresses, students and teachers on the relationship between school discipline and academic performance were coded, quantified and categorised according to the research tasks and their questions. Later on the data were tabulated, and the frequencies and responses calculated as percentages. Some of the respondents’ views and opinions were presented as quotations. These were then interpreted to reveal the influence of school discipline and academic performance in schools.
Quantitative data analysis
The data from the documentary review, structured questionnaires and observation were subjected to quantitative data analysis. The tabulation and calculation of number of frequencies, percentages and graphs were carried out by the help of Statistical Package for Social Science software programme (SPSS).
Ethical issues and considerations
Ethical procedures for conducting research were observed during the process of preparation and conducting field study. Research permits were obtained from the offices of Vice Chancellor- University of Dar es Salaam, Regional Administrative Secretaries of Kilimanjaro, Dodoma, Morogoro, Coast and Kagera Regions, and the District Administrative Secretaries of Moshi, Dodoma Rural, Kondoa, Morogoro Urban, Ulanga, Kibaha and Bukoba Rural.
During the data collection process, informed consent of the respondents was sought, and respondents were assured beforehand of the confidentiality and privacy of the information they would provide. Anonymity of respondents was adhered to when storing and processing data.
The researcher has accordingly acknowledged all scholarly work and data consulted including books, journals, theses, newspapers and field data.
Data presentation, analysis and discussion
Chapter Three dealt with the research design and methods used to collect data to address the problem and the knowledge gap identified in chapters one and two respectively. In this chapter, data presentation, analysis and discussion of research findings are presented in the light of the research tasks articulated in Chapter One. To recapitulate, the research tasks included:
To examine the extent to which school discipline influences academic performance in schools;
To investigate the ways school rules and regulations are formulated and enforced; and
To examine the extent to which the management of the school plays a role to maintain school discipline.
The schools studied were six Christian seminaries and four ordinary secondary schools. The characteristics of the sixty respondent teachers (i.e. ordinary classroom teachers, heads of schools and discipline masters or mistresses) regarding their professional education, length of stay in one’s work station, and experience in teaching were explored. It was the researcher’s contention that their consideration was necessary for discussion on discipline and academic performance in schools. Table 4.1 shows the characteristics of the respondents.
The Extent to which school discipline influences academic performance
The first task of the study was aimed at examining the extent to which school discipline influences academic performance in seminaries and ordinary secondary schools. The information was obtained through interviews to the Rectors, heads of ordinary secondary schools, discipline masters or mistresses, and experienced teachers, through questionnaires to teachers and students, as well as through observation.
Discipline related problems among students and teachers in both school categories
The researcher wanted to explore common discipline related problems among students and teachers in both categories of schools. The findings obtained from heads of schools, discipline masters/mistresses and experienced teachers are as indicated in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2 Teachers’ responses on discipline related problems among teachers and students
Christian seminaries ordinary secondary schools
Common discipline related problems among students
In Christian seminaries the majority of interviewed revealed that the major discipline related problems among students included lateness 12 (66.7%) which was expressed in coming late to school especially after holidays, coming late to class and to church; absconding from some school activities 11 (61.1%) and laziness 15 (83.3%). Lateness reduced time for attending or accomplishing an activity, including some academic and moral teachings which affected performance. Laziness was considered as leading to incomplete work or loss of time while absconding from school meant avoiding classes and some other religious activities without an acceptable reason. Repetition of the same problem was treated as a serious offence that could mar the school atmosphere. For example, repeated lateness was regarded as equivalent to truancy which led to suspension or dismissal from the seminary.
In addition, through the questionnaires administered to teachers, the findings revealed that lack of total commitment in Christian seminaries was considered as a disciplinary problem as indicated by 18 (75.0%) respondents. Lack of teachers’ as well as students’ commitment to Christian principles and philosophy had been identified as one critical factor that could affect school discipline, and hence poor performance. Generally, the interviewed respondents asserted that there were no such rude behaviours amounting to violent or criminal misconduct in their seminaries. However, the disciplinary problems already explained, in their view, still negatively affected the learning environment.
In ordinary secondary schools some of the findings were similar to those explained by their counterparts. However, there were areas of difference especially in degree, type and/or frequencies. Problems similar to those in seminaries included lateness 12 (100), laziness 9 (75.0%) and absconding 10 (83.3%). However, it was explained that these problems were more chronic when compared with seminaries. Furthermore, the type of disciplinary problems indicated that truancy 11 (91.7%), smoking marijuana 10 (83.3%), absenteeism 10 (83.3%) and abusive language 9 (75.0%) were common in ordinary secondary schools, which lacked in Christian seminaries. The respondents explained that these misbehaviours were poisoning the learning atmosphere in their schools. A discipline mistress at Kwapakacha Secondary School, in Kondoa District, explained:
In my school some of the students attend school willingly while others do not come to school regularly because of the negative influences in their lives including problems with families, mob psychology and or fear of punishment. Many students who miss school during regular hours are found committing some other crimes including smoking of marijuana (29- 09-2008).
The findings suggest that truancy was the most powerful predictor of delinquent behaviour. It was explained that students who frequently missed schools also fell behind their peers in classroom work performance and finally dropped out. Smoking marijuana as experienced in Kwapakacha secondary school was practiced by students who absented themselves and hid in places (called ‘vijiweni’) during class hours. These places sold tobacco, marijuana and other drugs. As this affected their brains they would not behave well nor concentrate on study tasks, which in turn led to poor performance.
Common discipline related problems among teachers
Most subjects who were interviewed in Christian seminaries maintained that there were hardly any discipline related problems among teachers. What was seen was that some teachers in Christian seminaries tended to obey seminary rules and regulations simply because the environment of the seminary forced them to do so, and that obedience did not emanate from their hearts. In Christian seminaries obedience which was strictly emphasised was that of the level emphasised through their Christian faith (Philippians 2:8), something that the less committed people could not afford. Obedience in seminaries sometimes meant a teacher being forced to obey some of the unfavourable seminary rules and regulations without questioning, which bred inner dissatisfaction.
As regards ordinary secondary schools all interviewed respondents maintained that acts of discipline among teachers resembled in nature those committed by their students. Specific acts by teachers included: absenting themselves from classes with no permission and absconding from school during class hours, which led to missing lessons. Frequency in committing these led to friction between the teachers concerned and the administration, which in turn affected performance. Unlike Christian seminaries it was found out that absenteeism 10 (83.3%) of teachers in ordinary secondary schools was common, as some teachers were frequently away from work during class hours for reasons not known or accepted by the school authority, such as attending “paid” tuition classes elsewhere and other private business. Another problem, to a degree related to absenteeism, was drunkenness 8 (66.75) that led to poor attendance to school activities.
Reasons for violation of school rules and regulations among teachers and students
In this particular sub-task, through interviews with experienced teachers, discipline masters or mistresses and heads of schools and through questionnaires administered to teachers and students, the respondents were asked to give reasons that led both teachers and their students to violate school rules and regulations. Most of the reasons were common to both teachers and students while some were exclusive to students and others to teachers. On other hand, despite that most of the reasons were to be found in both categories of schools, they differed in their type and degree. The findings revealed the following reasons that could lead to violation of school rules and regulations:
Ignorance of school rules and regulations
In Christian seminaries it was asserted that when teachers were not well informed about the terms and conditions of their employment and about the rules and regulations in their school, there was a possibility to infringe upon them. One teacher from Maua Seminary, in Moshi Rural District, asserted that:
In our seminary this is not a big issue since teachers are informed about school rules and regulations before signing their employment contract and during orientation where teachers are informed about school affairs. (24-09-2009).
In ordinary secondary schools it was revealed that sometimes misconduct occurred simply because teachers and students did not know how to act appropriately because they were ill informed about school rules and regulations. Interviews revealed that in all four ordinary secondary schools the mode of informing about rules and regulations was practiced differently from that in the Christian seminaries where teachers had to pass through each of the rules before finally accepting or rejecting the employment contract. It was also found out that the same situation faced students when they were not adequately informed about school rules. In this context inadequate information about school rules led to deviant behaviours that in turn could lead to poor performance.
Poor Motivation
Poor motivation lowered teachers’ morale due to unsatisfactory working conditions. This was more common especially in public schools where teachers lacked houses, and were not paid adequate money to be able to rent good houses. Lack of adequate school facilities like libraries, laboratories and late delivery of services such as delayed salary and other allowances also increased the dissatisfaction among teachers. The respondents in Christian seminaries, however, reported that the problem was not as serious as in normal government schools. For example in St. Peter’s Seminary the only housing problem was that two lay teachers had to share a house which in their view it could lead to some misunderstandings which by seminary standards they were considered a breaching of social as well as Christian faith-based values. Furthermore, observation revealed that all Christian seminaries provided boarding to students as well as housing facilities to all teachers. Unlike Christian seminaries, most ordinary secondary schools lacked housing facilities for their teachers which led them to rent rooms or houses outside the school compound. One teacher from Haneti Secondary School, in Dodoma Rural District, had this to say:
Secondary school teachers have been demoralized and frustrated by their employer because they are either lowly paid, they live in poor housing conditions, resulting in low morale, which in turn makes teachers concentrate less on students’ welfare (31-09-2008).
The quotation above confirms the view by Mwaipaja (2000:184) who maintained that low salaries, poor medical services, lack of transport facilities and a poor school environment make teachers less motivated to perform their expected responsibilities. The level of efficiency of a teacher who enjoys residence facilities built around the school is expected and has been observed to be higher than for teachers live far away from the school. It was observed that in all ordinary secondary schools there were delays among teachers in attending the first class period in the morning as most teachers were late. This reduced the total time a teacher needed to be in contact with students. More information on the availability of school physical resources on both Christian seminaries and ordinary secondary schools is shown on Table 4.3
It was found out that in Christian seminaries all classes were small and therefore manageable. Commenting on this, Kung’alo (2000:193) argues that although the seminary can accommodate up to 500 students, the Bishops decided to aim at a smaller number which could produce good results. They insisted on quality rather than quantity, as overcrowded classes led to the failure of the teacher to monitor the class and to pay attention to individual students.
On the other hand, the study found out that some of the ordinary secondary schools, for example Kwapakacha Secondary School, had a large number of students registered up to 70 per stream. The respondents asserted that overcrowding in classrooms affected efficiency and effectiveness of teaching and supervision thus affecting teachers’ morale. It also had an effect on both the ability of the teacher to help individual students and the frequency of assigning homework. For example, while teachers in Kasita Seminary indicated that they gave assignments on the weekends, those in Kwapakacha Secondary school did not practice this. A teacher at Kwapakacha, in Kondoa District, observed:
Where classes are typically more than 50 students in one stream, maintaining order in the classroom can divert the teacher from instruction, leaving little opportunity for concentration and focus on what is to be taught (29-09-2008).
This problem might encourage misconduct as a result of distracted teacher attention and actual overwhelming of the teacher, who could easily overlook his or her duty of rectifying students’ misbehaviours, finally affecting academic performance.
Shortage of teachers
In Christian seminaries it was reported that currently they had an adequate complement of teachers, except Uru Seminary where Vice Rector indicated shortage of two teachers. As a temporary measure the seminary hired part-time teachers from other schools. On the other hand, in all ordinary secondary schools the number of teachers was too small to allow for effective teaching and learning processes. With comparatively large class sizes, all the secondary schools under study experienced a lot of pressure, with teachers carrying extraordinarily big workloads and the schools thus apparently understaffed. Teaching and knowledge delivery as a whole was highly constrained. A teacher from Pahi Secondary School, in Kondoa District, asserted that:
Due to acute shortage of teachers in schools, we teachers resort to the lecture method, which reduces teacher-student interaction. We hardly mark students’ exercises and, as such, suppress student curiosity (02-10-2008).
The ratio of students to the teachers in both Christian seminaries and ordinary secondary schools as given by heads of schools and the Rectors is summarised in Table 4.4 below.
The teacher-student ratio in ordinary secondary schools ranged from 1:51-1:56 with an average level 1:54. This ratio was higher when compared with Christian seminaries, in which the teacher-student ratio ranged from 1:11-1:19 with an average ratio of 1:15, which was far below the national teacher-student ratio of 1:40. Following the shortage of teachers in ordinary secondary schools some responsibilities were either not fulfilled or poorly executed. For example, in Haneti Secondary School one teacher was a supervisor of school cleanliness, a students’ counsellor, a class teacher and a head of department, apart from having a teaching load of 35 periods per week. As a result, some of her lessons went missing when she had to attend to other duties. On the other hand, in Christian seminaries there was an opportunity for teachers to attend to every individual student fully in and out of class, it being easy for them to control students’ discipline and orient them towards academic affairs. This was not well fulfilled by their counterparts in ordinary secondary schools where, in some instances, some subjects were not taught because the school had no specialised teachers for them, as was the case of physics at Pahi Secondary School. This affected academic performance and provoked dissatisfaction from students.
Inconsistent use of punishments
The seminaries claimed that when executing disciplinary actions, it was consistently and fairly applied to students or teachers depending on the nature of the offence regardless of an individuals’ other positions or ranks. The study revealed that, unlike the situation in Christian seminaries, some of misbehaviours in ordinary secondary schools were a result of inconsistency in the use of disciplinary action towards the offenders. One teacher from Pahi Secondary School had this in comment:
Unfair and inconsistent enforcement of school rules makes students lose faith in rules. If a teacher ignores breaking of a rule one day and comes down hard on the same the next day, one will not be seen as being consistent, therefore one is likely to lose respect and breaking of the rule will probably increase (02-10-2008).
The above view predicted that consistency and fairness in executing school rules were essential for effective classroom or school management. Variations in the way similar offences were dealt with in a school would likely cause discontent among teachers and students thereby negatively affect academic performance.
Leadership style
Most teachers in Christian seminaries indicated that the style of leadership was more or less characterised by rigidity of rules and uniform application in executing such rules. There were less bureaucratic procedures in reaching and implementing leadership decisions. For example, in Christian seminaries the Rector has the power to involve or not involve the discipline committee in expelling or terminating a student who has committed an offence. In this case the seminary board is only informed. Thus in seminaries there are elements of dictatorial leadership. As such any deviance was responded to immediately and deviations from the norm were also regarded as going against the principles of Christian faith. On the other hand, the leadership style in ordinary secondary schools was more lax and decision making was more bureaucratic involving more stages and people, which gave loopholes for some deviant behaviour that affected academic performance in general. For instance, once a student is found guilty, the school administration would only suspend the student and later on inform the board for further actions.
However, talking about issues on motivation, overcrowding, shortage of teachers and delaying of services such as of salaries involved the level of the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training that was beyond the jurisdiction of the school and was bureaucratic in nature. Unlike the situation in ordinary secondary schools, all factors that could bring disciplinary problems in Christian seminaries were within control of the institution and it was less bureaucratic in dealing with them.
One further factor mentioned by teachers in connection with violation of school rules and regulations was irresponsibility on the part of parents. In Christian seminaries 14 (58.3%) of teachers and 15 (93.8%) in ordinary secondary schools pointed out that a sense of irresponsibility on the part of parents could be one possible reason for students breaking school rules and regulations. It was pointed out that some parents did not cooperate fully in the disciplining and following-up of academic progress of their children. In seminaries it was found that screening of the candidates for joining their schools involved adequate knowledge on and appreciation or acceptance of their parents’ conduct whereby only children of parents who were regarded as socially and religiously responsible were selected. Carefree parents, as was reported in connection with ordinary secondary schools, bred a fertile ground for their children to become lax in school matters, thus affecting their discipline and ultimately lowering their performance levels.
The researcher was interested in capturing students’ knowledge and views concerning discipline and performance. Their responses are indicated in Table 4.5
When students were asked about the right behaviour with respect to school rules and regulations, their responses were as shown in Table 4.6.
Students in Christian seminaries indicated to be more sensitive about the rules as expressed in the higher degree of their “agree” responses, reflecting the nature of how they were sensitised and affected by such rules. As with students in ordinary secondary schools some of the students’ answers on smoking and drinking alcohol proved the contradiction between rules at the home (where they resided) and rules at school (where they spent day hours). At home they were allowed to drink alcohol and they socialized with smokers, which attracted them to attempt such practices. This could affect their health and their brain, thus affecting their concentration on academic affairs.
Furthermore, students were asked to give their views on what was actually taking place in their respective schools. Table 4.7 summarises their views.
The ways school rules and regulations are formulated and enforced in schools
Task two of the study sought to investigate the ways school rules and regulations were formulated and enforced. Interviews were held with heads of schools, discipline masters or mistresses and experienced teachers, while questionnaires were administered to teachers and documents relating to the two categories of schools were also reviewed.
Involvement in the formulation of school rules and regulations in schools
Respondents in Christian seminaries asserted that seminary rules and regulations were formulated on the basis of both government educational policy and their Christian faith. Some rules in Christian seminaries were direct from the Ministry of Education. For example, Maua Seminary rules on school uniform (Appendix H No.4D) concurred with those laid down by the Ministry of Education in chapter 6E in “Kiongozi cha Mkuu wa Shule ya Sekondari Tanzania” (MOEC, 1997). Other seminary rules and regulations were more or less modified to fit the local environment and the aims of seminaries. The Vice-Rector at Visiga Seminary, in Kibaha District, explained:
The ways to formulate and implement seminary rules and regulations differ between seminaries, either Diocesan or Congregation. Generally, the formulation of rules and regulations in Christian seminaries is hierarchical from the top Board of Bishops to the Members of Congregations. Then follows the Board of Vocation Directors, who constantly communicates with the Rector of the seminary in carrying out the deliberations of the two boards. The Rector, who is also the Secretary of the Board of Directors and the Principal Executive Officer, supervises staff members consisting of priests, sisters and the lay teachers. On the part of students leaders there are prefects and class monitors (19-09-2008).
The findings revealed that the formulation of seminary rules and regulations was a two way system. On the one hand, formulating rules emanated from the normal policies of the Ministry concerned with education. On the other hand it was integrated with Christian faith. This is in line with what was stipulated in “Sera ya Elimu ya Baraza la Maaskofu Katoliki Tanzania” (2005:4-12). The Christian faith-based policies were laid down by a Board of Bishops and the members of Congregation (who are the owners of the seminaries or policy makers), and the rules were executed by the Rectors and teaching staff (implementers of rules and regulations). There was Vocation director position that formed the link between the policy makers and implementers, and the position’s duty included advising both parties on the proper character formation of the seminarians. During execution of the rules by the seminary management, some rules were fixed by the higher authority and could not be modified e.g. daily administering and attending of the religious Mass, while others depended on the position of the individual seminary e.g. permission to go outing. With regard to students, rules were handed to them and they could only advise on the minor implications of the rules whose modification was within the management’s jurisdiction. The interconnectedness indicated above within the Christian seminary structure seems to have resulted into an observable link between conducive teaching, a generally tranquil learning environment in seminaries and a reign of discipline.
In ordinary secondary schools the findings on the formulation of school rules and regulations revealed a similar picture of rules being formulated hierarchically. At the top there is the Ministry of Education and the school Board (owners of the school) down to the school management (implementers). Figures 4.1 and 4.2 show the organizational structure of both Christian seminaries and ordinary secondary schools, respectively.
Ways in which School Rules and Regulations Were Made Clear and Agreeable to Both Teachers and Students
Through interview with heads of schools, discipline masters or mistresses and experienced teachers, the researcher wanted to find out the ways school rules and regulations were made clear and agreeable to teachers and students. The findings are presented and discussed as hereunder.
Use of a School Rules Handbook: Such handbooks spelled out the rules of conduct, the reasons for the rules and also the consequences of not following these rules. In Christian seminaries all respondents asserted that handbooks were given to newly admitted students and to teachers during the process of formalising the contract. On the contrary, their counterparts in ordinary secondary schools claimed that they were not given such handbooks by their employers.
Staff Meetings: All respondents in all schools explained that regular staff meetings were held two /three times per term, before opening the school, between the term and at the end for assessment and review. The Rector, at Maua Seminary, in Moshi Rural District, explained thus:
In the meeting staff members get informed and reminded of the school rules and regulations in addition to what is given before a contract is signed. Often new rules are made or old ones are modified as the situation dictates, and this should be communicated to the relevant people promptly (24-09-2008).
It was apparent therefore, that staff meetings in schools helped to keep all members of staff well informed and involved in schools’ undertakings/events.
Orientation and Induction Course: In seminaries it was explained that before the official opening of the academic year, both the newly employed teachers and newly admitted students had to go through an orientation course which might take one week for teachers and two weeks for students. During the orientation session, copies of rules and regulations were given to both staff and students and they were made clear and interpreted. On this Okumbe (1998:119) maintains that educational managers must ensure that all staff members and students are informed about rules and regulations of the school and the consequences of breaking them. In ordinary secondary schools it was revealed that all newcomer students had to go through an orientation course for two weeks, but newly employed teachers were sometimes not instantly informed about the rules informing teachers’ conduct.
School Baraza: During these meetings school rules were explained and students could ask questions to or seek clarifications from the authority on the issues that raised their doubts. In both categories of schools the findings disclosed that holding of the school baraza ranged from two to three times per term. In Christian seminaries the study found that there were students-Rector meetings that ranged from once a week to once a month in addition to the students’ Baraza. For instance, Uru, St. Peters’ and St. James held their meetings with their Rectors once a week. The variations in the timing of meetings was meant to give chance to other position leaders e.g. spiritual directors, academic and discipline masters to meet with the students and discuss various issues on spiritual, academic and discipline life. This was quite different from ordinary secondary schools where there were no scheduled students-head meetings but only the school baraza. In this situation, the frequency of students to interact with the authority on various issues varied.
Students and Teachers’ Interaction: In Christian seminaries the respondents revealed that the interaction between and among students such as students leadership, senior-junior students helped to inform about seminary rules and the consequences of breaking them. Also, through counselling, individual students and teachers were sensitised to what was taking place in school. As for ordinary secondary schools, student-teacher interaction of the kind described of seminaries was not as frequent or as intensive.
Categories of Punishments upon Breaking School Rules and Regulations
In this sub-task, experienced teachers and discipline masters/mistresses were interviewed and other teachers were served with questionnaires. All interviewed respondents in both categories of school agreed that the kind of punishment given depended on the seriousness of the offence, its impact, repetition of the case and intention of committing the offence. Kinds of punishment were ranged from a warning to a dismissal.
Reprimand (Oral or Written): Respondents in both types of schools pointed out that when the offence did not warrant temporary or permanent removal from the school, then either oral or written warning could be administered. In most cases a written warning followed an oral warning. The Rector of Kasita Seminary, in Ulanga District, explained as follows:
If a teacher or a student does not respond positively to the oral talk, then a written warning is issued. In some cases the offence is too strong for the oral warning. Written warning should contain a statement of the offence committed, with copies of letters sent to his parish priest and to the parents or guardians (13-10-2008).
Manual Work: Examples of punitive manual work assignment would include cleaning the school compound, garden (shamba) work, mopping a dirty floor, and similar activity. Such kind of punishment was given to minor offences, like a lazy attitude towards a given work assignment. In Christian seminaries it was learned that when the defined ‘minor’ offence persisted, it became a serious offence. For example, repeated late coming was treated as a serious offence which led to either dismissal or suspension. In ordinary secondary schools quite often lateness was tolerated and not subjected to suspension. This could yet be another factor to a higher rate of lateness in ordinary secondary schools, compared to seminaries.
Suspension: The respondents defined this as a kind of punishment whereby a student was sent away from the school temporarily for a specified period of time, usually two or three weeks, as decided by the school committee. Suspension was an extremely rare case in the seminaries and offences which deserved suspension in ordinary secondary schools would end in outright expulsion in Christian seminaries.
Expulsion: All respondents explained that a permanent dismissal of a student from a school occurred upon committing a major offence or, in seminaries, when signs of repeating the same offence are demonstrated. Cases such as fighting, stealing, drinking alcohol, absence from school especially during the night or during class hours, abusing a teacher or a fellow student, were treated as very serious offences leading to permanent removal from the seminary on their first commission (Appendix J).
Caning: Caning was another kind of punishment which was, however, rarely practised in some seminaries. Those who exercised it claimed that it was an instant action that helped a lot in reforming a student’s behaviour. The Rector at Uru Seminary in Moshi, quoted Proverbs 19:18 and 23:13-14 in the Bible:
Discipline your son for in that there is hope, do not be a willing part to his death. Do not withhold discipline from a child: if you punish him with the rod, he will not die. Punish him with the rod and save his soul from death (26-09-2008).
Through questionnaires, the findings revealed that the majority of seminary teachers (23 or 95.8%) asked the juvenile students to clean the school area as an alternative and better punishment for correcting their misbehaviour. This meant that caning in seminaries was less preferred as a disciplinary measure to correct misbehaviour. In ordinary secondary schools, teachers preferred use of corporal punishment because they believed that it was easer to administer and that it worked more promptly than others such as manual work. More than two thirds (68.8%) of the 16 teachers responding to the questionnaire preferred caning as a way to correct students’ misbehaviour, while in Christian seminaries the percentage using this method was as low as 29.2%, as figure 4.3 demonstrates.
Generally it was found out that both types of schools considered punishment as a necessary disciplinary measure in schools although they differed on the manner or extent of the implementation. In seminaries the implementation of punishment was consistently applied to every member and the enforcement of discipline was strict, while it was less consistent in ordinary secondary schools because a number of forms of misbehaviour were ignored or disciplinary action took too long a time before it was executed.
The role of the school management in maintaining discipline in schools
With respect to task three of the study the heads of schools and teachers were the key informants on how the management of schools acted towards teachers and students in ensuring that they fulfilled their duties and responsibilities.
The Mechanisms Used by the Management of Schools to Maintain Discipline
The Rectors in seminaries and the heads of schools in ordinary secondary schools indicated that they used various strategies to influence and stimulate both teachers and students to be in line with school rules and regulations. The following are some of the most common strategies.
Motivational: In Christian seminaries salaries were higher than in ordinary secondary schools and teachers were provided with free housing, water and meals (lunch and breakfast) and free transport. The seminaries also rewarded teachers whose subjects ranked among the best ten in National Examinations. At St. Peter’s Seminary for instance, for each A grade in either Form Two or Form Four National Examinations it was accompanied by Tshs 10,000/=, and teachers whose subject ranked among the best five in National Examinations were rewarded Tshs100,000/=. Furthermore, in recognition of teachers’ teamwork, the seminary administration offered picnics to all staff members.
In addition, Rectors revealed that seminaries rewarded cash, certificates and other materials such as exercise books, dictionaries, reference books and spiritual books to best students from each class, in terms of individual subjects and those who behaved well. The study found out that offering of incentives and rewards varied between seminaries. At Maua Seminary, students who ranked best in the zone in any subject in Form Two National Examinations were given an exemption of Tshs100,000/= in school fees in their Form Three and Form Four, while those with outstanding behaviour were given spiritual books or books on morals and certificates of excellence.
In ordinary secondary schools a few various rewards such as cash money and certificates were also provided but this process of rewarding was limited by lack of resources for application to other areas such as accommodation, salary, transport facilities and stationery materials. At Haneti secondary, in Dodoma Rural District, it was noted that the provision of incentives was not consistent, depending on the availability of resources, and thus being offered in one year and absent in the following year. Furthermore, lack of hostels and transport facilities for students disheartened them as much of the time was used in travelling to and fro. This demoralised the teachers as well students.
Provision of the rewards in both categories of schools was done on special occasions, such as at Form Four graduation ceremonies, at which the whole school community would present. The logic behind was to make sure that all groups concerned could attend given the fact that incentives or rewards acted as a mechanism for the winners to maintain their positions and for others to struggle to get into the position of the winners.
Students’ admission: In Christian seminaries it was found out that screening a candidate for recruitment underwent rigorous procedures, mainly beginning at one’s local parish before finally being accepted into a respective seminary. Identification of a possible aspirant was done by the parish priest in collaboration with a small committee of Christians, centring on candidates’ academic ability, moral and Christian life manifested through active participation in church matters and other social activities. Those who were sieved filled forms which demanded background information on academic, family, social and spiritual life. After the forms were accepted, written examinations on mathematics, language, religion and general knowledge were given, followed by interview before a candidate was finally accepted. In exams, the average mark stood at 50%.
Unlike Christian seminaries, students in ordinary secondary schools were admitted on one criterion of passing the Primary School Leaving Examination (PSLE), which did not need to undergo rigorous screening of a student’s family, spiritual, moral or any other social life aspect. This gave loophole to various undesirable behaviours to be accommodated with students who joined secondary education. This impacted also on later secondary school discipline and performance.
Teacher recruitment: All the Rectors indicated that they recruited lay teachers on behalf of their Bishops or Religious superiors. Deans of Education Faculty in Universities and or academic deans in Teachers Colleges helped in advertising the posts. Interested applicants got interviewed by Rectors and Vocational Directors on their qualifications, experiences, moral conduct, personality traits, individual interests and competencies, including language competency. Successful individuals were given probation of 3 to 6 months under which they were closely observed and assessed by the Rectors, teachers and students before they finally signing a contract of two to three years which indicated their terms and conditions of employment. Priests, Brothers and Nuns were directly appointed by their respective Bishops or Religious Superiors and posted to the seminaries. This system of recruitment ensured that the seminaries have qualified and committed teachers who inspired hope and trust in students to study hard and perform well academically.
In ordinary secondary schools it was found out that teachers were recruited by the ministry responsible for education, and the main method used was to employ teachers who had finished a teaching course programme, and not necessarily with due reference to academic ability or to moral conduct, interest in teaching, experience and commitment to the work. For example, Form VI leavers whose induction course ranged between one and six months were simply licensed to teach. This system of recruiting sometimes could affect discipline in schools where such teachers might not be fully committed or competent in teaching.
Assessments Mechanism: Rectors revealed that each seminarian and each teacher was individually assessed each term in connection with his character. All the students knew the aspects to be awarded marks in discipline including punctuality, work performance, cooperation, and respect, care for property, cleanliness and general moral values. This pushed the students to perform well to win marks for survival in the seminary. On this the Rector at St. Peters’ Seminary in Morogoro, had this to say:
There are A, B and C grades for student discipline. In all seminaries C is considered poor and is punishable; if one gets C consecutively in two terms or if one gets three Cs in one term or at the end of the academic term and gets a total average of less than 50% he is discontinued from school (27-08-2008).
Like Christian seminaries, assessment in ordinary secondary schools was used to measure both academic ability and character of students. The difference between them was on the impact of getting a C or D grade where in seminaries this carried more weight and was therefore punishable. However, in ordinary secondary schools more emphasis was directed towards academic progress, leaving some loopholes for discipline matters which, in the end, affected the academic side as well.
Use of the Discipline Committee: Within seminaries a discipline committee, sometimes called Administrative committee, was composed of the Rector, Vice Rector, discipline master and the heads of departments on one side, and a students’ committee working under the discipline master on the other. In ordinary secondary schools it was generally composed of the second master or mistress, discipline master or mistress, academic teacher and the heads of departments. The heads of both seminaries and ordinary secondary schools indicated that they used discipline committees to deal with misconduct of individuals in school. They set pace to the framework, policies, rules and procedures which controlled the school and decided and recommended to the heads the type of disciplinary measures to be taken towards wrong doers. The discipline committee ensured that the daily school routine and school time tables were properly followed and the responsibility of educating students in all matters concerning their life, such as academics, social, spiritual and psychological uplift, was well fulfilled.
Use and Displaying of School Policy, Vision and Mission documents: The heads of seminaries showed that they displayed their respective seminaries’ policies, vision and mission for all seminary members to read, contemplate upon and follow. Policies usually guided their institutions towards realization of intended goals and helped to create harmony and security in seminaries. The policies guiding the seminaries were stipulated in a special booklet.
Life in the seminary was also guided by the Vision and Mission. The vision for example, was to have good priests, Christians and citizens who were free from corruption. The vision tried to balance the common motto in seminaries centred on prayer, study, work and discipline which were highly regarded as necessary to build a complete person spiritually, mentally and physically. Hard work, guided by a powerful sense of vision, was also regarded as necessary for success in the seminary. The study revealed that each seminary had its own specific motto. For instance, Maua Seminary had “My God My All”, meaning that is once one has God he or she has each and everything, while St. Mary’s Visiga Seminary had “Prayer, Study, Work and Discipline”. In addition, seminaries had some slogans that urged students and teachers to work hard towards implementation of the school vision, as observed from different labels in various offices and notice boards, such as “Be Silent” or “Observe Silence” and “Try and Fail but Do Not Fail To Try”. At Maua Seminary, words such as “Discipline” were displayed and given meaning as follows:
D - Decide for yourself
I - Involve intelligent reasoning
S - Strive for the best behaviour
C - Choose to do the right things
I - Internalize positive behaviour
P - Pick what is good
L - Love and rationalise the rules
I - Initiate doing things without being reminded or monitored
N - Nurture self drive and
E - Examine your conscience (Appendix K).
Ordinary secondary schools did also have such mottos. For instance Kwapakacha had “If You Think Education Is Expensive Then Try Ignorance”. The presence of stipulated policies, vision and mission in schools helped to maintain harmony and discipline, thus encouraging them to work consistently, continuously seeing the relationship between discipline and academic performance.
Faith based mechanism: Rectors indicated that the religious aspect played a great role to maintain discipline in seminaries. The Rector at St. Peters’ Seminary, believed that:
Religion is the first bias that makes an institution a seminary, enabling it to meet its primary goal of producing priests. On the other hand, good religion is the foundation of good discipline and character which are in turn essential for academic and extra-curricular excellence in a school (27-08-2007).
The findings showed that Christian seminaries believed that high discipline, which was essential for good academic performance, was rooted in the teaching and practice of religion, emphasising loyalty and trust in work to every individual. The use of faith based criteria found in Christian seminaries as an extra mechanism for managing discipline and performance was absent in normal secondary schools.
The methods used by the management of schools to maintain an amicable relationship between the School and the community around
Through interviews, Rectors and heads of schools advanced several methods although these varied according to the nature and aims of these types of school. The first method was to include the community members in school board and to involve them in various levels of school activities such as teaching, cooking, cleaning and security, as well as sharing of resources available between them, such as water, medical and electricity services. Secondly, there were parent-teacher meetings and contacts and, on occasions, invitations to parents to attend events like sports, games and graduation ceremonies at the school. In Christian seminaries all Rectors said that they used physical visitations as well as spiritual services like community masses and funeral masses, as well as special seminars, to strengthen the relationship between a seminary and the community around.
What was common with ordinary secondary schools was parent-teacher meetings which, however, differed in the sense that when meetings were called in ordinary secondary schools they normally demanded a financial contribution towards the school (and this might be a source of mistrust between a school and parent community). In Christian seminaries meetings with parents mainly discussed discipline and academic matters and hardly about contributions to the seminaries. The study found out that the contribution of discipline to academic performance was to some extent influenced by the community around. Okumbe (1998:13) maintains that a school is not an island; it is founded within the society for the noble role of serving the society. Schools are essential social institutions for acquiring knowledge, abilities, attitudes and skills: they are ideal centres for the socialization of children, and for inculcating required standards of behaviour. On this the Vice Rector at Uru Seminary, observed that:
The transformation of students is not only the responsibility of teachers but also of the community around, which reinforces and teaches the values to young and new members. Often this is done through modelling values and participating in activities that involve interaction between a school and the community, thereby strengthening their mutual relationship (26-09-2008).
Viewed from this perspective, it could be said that the society had a duty to shape the individual students, aiming at developing self-discipline and responsibility. On this, Tanzania Episcopal Conference Education Policy (2005:19-20) maintains that maintenance of discipline and values in education institutions relies heavily on support from the community around. It was therefore the ambient environment, the home, the school and the society that influenced and would indeed continue to influence their character and behaviour.
Considerations taken into account by the school management with respect to choice of school premises
Heads of both categories of schools revealed that in choosing the location for school premises at least three points were to be considered. First, the environment had to be free from noises and diseases, and easily accessible with a good communication and transport system. Secondly, social services such as water, medical services and electricity should be available. Thirdly, there should be ample space to provide room for other projects like sports and games, a garden, swimming pool and other economic projects. The head of Kashozi secondary school, in Bukoba District, asserted that:
A school located far away from students’ homes may encourage lateness, missing classes and truancy, hence poor performance. Moreover, recreational entertainments such as bars, music clubs and hotels attract students towards indiscipline. Also a school located in very remote areas may face some problems such as lack of communication and transport facilities and libraries.
This response corresponds to what Omari (1995:31) observes, that in Tanzania geographical location may greatly affect the academic performance of schools and pupils on account of the long distances to be travelled. The remote rural areas, for instance, are known to suffer from lack of teaching materials and qualified teachers. Through questionnaires, 13 (54.2%) teachers in ordinary secondary schools and 12 (50%) teachers in Christian seminaries maintained that location of the school could, and did, influence school discipline. In this respect, it was found out that ordinary secondary schools were located in areas which in one way or another affected school discipline. For example, schools such as Haneti and Pahi did not have a library, and being located in remote rural areas students did not have the opportunities offered by public libraries and other schools’ libraries, and they did not consult and interact with other students. These schools also lacked permanent or professional teachers as those posted to them either did not report or reported but did not stay long. Yet, Kwapakacha secondary school, which is located in an urban area, suffers from noisy surroundings, and with students often interacting with bad groups outside. The Christian seminaries studied were built to avoid such distractors.
Thus, school location is an essential factor for influencing discipline as well as academic performance. In this case schools that were located in places where students have an opportunity to visit libraries and interact easily with their fellow students in other schools, where they could access social services such as medical services, electricity and water, where there is easy transport and communication and there is room for sports and games, generally enabled their students to perform better in both academic and discipline matters.
Teaching and assessment strategies used by teachers in schools
Through questionnaires teachers were asked to provide information related to mechanisms frequently employed in teaching. Tables 4.8 and 4.9 give a summary of the responses on teaching and assessment mechanisms used in Christian seminaries relative to ordinary secondary schools.
The findings show that discussion and questions and answers were the leading methods used by teachers in both categories of schools, represented by 22 (91.7%) and 21 (87.5%) of teachers in seminaries and 13 (81.3%) and 11 (68.7%) in ordinary secondary schools respectively. Apart from discussion and question and answer methods, peer teaching, brainstorming and demonstration seem to be more dominant teaching methods used by teachers in Christian seminaries than those by their counterparts in ordinary secondary schools. The findings indicated that teachers in seminaries prefer to use participatory methods in teaching rather than non-participatory methods. Participatory methods allow learners to build understanding to a higher level than can be derived from activity alone.
When asked to indicate other methods that they frequently used in teaching, teachers in ordinary secondary schools commented that it would not be possible to use other types of methods rather than lecture, questions and answers and note taking because of the big number of students in one class and the lack of teaching and learning materials, while teachers in Christian seminaries said that the discussion method was effective in getting the students to think constructively while interacting with the rest of the group.
Table 4.9 shows that both types of school administered examinations at the end of the term. Teachers in both schools also gave monthly tests as indicated by 22 (91.7%) of respondents in seminaries and 11 (68.8) in ordinary secondary schools. With regard to assignments, 11 ordinary secondary teachers (68.8%) gave assignments at the end of the topic while teachers in Christian seminaries normally used weekly assignments as indicated by 18 (75.0%) respondents. This might be why in Christian seminaries even at the weekend the students were very busy doing assignments, thereby being controlled for possible absconding, which is different from ordinary secondary schools where students were day scholars.
Summary
From the data presentation and analysis in this chapter, the major areas on which the two categories of educational institutions vary include the type and range of discipline related problems and factors behind violation of school rules and regulations; the manner by which school rules are formulated; forms of punishment meted out upon breach of school rules and regulations; and the role and style of school management in maintaining school discipline.
Summary, conclusions and recomendationsU
The preceding four chapters dealt with several aspects pertaining to the research problem. This chapter presents a summary of the study, the major findings, conclusions and pertinent recommendations with the respect to the main findings of the study.
Summary of the study
This study investigated the extent to which school discipline influenced academic performance in Christian seminaries vis a vis ordinary secondary schools in Tanzania. Based on the specific objectives of the study, three research tasks were formulated to guide data collection and analysis. These focused on examining the extent to which school discipline influences academic performance in schools, investigating the ways school rules and regulations are formulated and enforced, as well as examining the extent to which the management of the school plays a role in maintaining school discipline.
The research was conducted in five regions, namely Kilimanjaro, Dodoma, Morogoro, Coast and Kagera, specifically in six Christian seminaries and four ordinary secondary schools. The study employed principally a qualitative research approach applying a descriptive study design, with quantification of cases as was necessary. Data were obtained through documentary review, interview, questionnaire and observation methods. The quantitative data were processed with the help of SPSS software programme and were summarised into tables of frequencies, percentages and graphs, while qualitative data were subjected to content analysis and relevant information was extracted.
The findings were expected to generate useful information that might result into new knowledge and stimulate better strategies for improving discipline and academic performance in schools.
Summary of the major findings
The following were the major findings of the study:
On type and range of discipline related problems in schools
Discipline related problems among teachers and students common in both categories of schools were identified as lateness, laziness, disobedience and absconding. However, the extent of the problem was greater at ordinary secondary schools where, in addition, truancy, abusive language, chronic absenteeism, smoking and drinking alcohol seemed to be more frequent.
In ordinary secondary schools the reasons and factors behind violating of school rules and regulations were associated with shortage of teachers and teaching-learning materials, overcrowded classes, poor housing, delayed services such as of teacher salary payment, and the absence of libraries and laboratories. Other factors were bureaucracy in decision making and lack of consistency in decision implementation. These factors, at the time of study, were either absent or minimal in most seminaries.
On formulation and enforcement of school rules and regulations
In seminaries the normal policies of the government were integrated with Christian faith based policies in the formulation of rules and regulations. Rules formulation also followed a hierarchical process with the Board of Bishops at the top, through vocational directors and finally the Rectors and seminary teaching staff as executors or supervisors.
A similarly hierarchical process of rules formulation was followed in ordinary secondary schools with the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training at the top through the school board to school management (implementers).
In both categories of schools, as targeted beneficiaries, students were involved in implementation after the formulation process had been accomplished.
Staff meetings, the school baraza, an induction or orientation course, student-teacher interactions, and displaying of school rules and regulations on notice-boards were some of the common means through which students and teachers were informed or reminded about such rules and regulations. However, in addition, the Christian seminaries provided for a one week orientation session for teachers, handbooks of school rules to teachers and students, and frequent use of students-Rector meetings in order to accelerate the speed with which school rules were known by all members.
Types of punishment that were used in maintaining discipline in schools included reprimand, manual work, suspension and dismissal. Christian seminaries, however, were characterised more by consistency and progressive action stages in punishment application, with initial advice and warning, followed by penal manual work, and dismissal for repeated or grave misconduct. On the other hand, ordinary secondary schools often ignored some of the misbehaviours considered less serious and punishment execution would be more bureaucratic, especially in cases involving suspension or dismissal. Caning was preferred in ordinary secondary schools, believing that it was instantly effective and easier to administer.
On mechanisms for maintaining school discipline
Provision of housing, better salaries, free transport allowances and consistent assessment criteria were part of the mechanisms used by the management in Christian seminaries to influence both teachers and students to work hard. Continual and critical assessment of conduct and academic progress, faith-based criteria and rigorous procedures that touch on background factors such as on family, academic, moral, social and spiritual life, personality traits, interest, work habits and competencies, including language competency in the course of recruiting teachers and selecting students characterised Christian seminaries. These differentiated them from ordinary secondary schools over who should either join or survive to the end. On the other hand, ordinary secondary schools maintained the ‘right of education for everyone’ policy without serious recourse to student background factors as well as employing teachers who had finished a teaching programme, regardless of specific academic or professional qualification or ability, moral conduct, interest in teaching, experience or commitment to the work.
School parent meetings and contacts, sharing of resources, offering jobs to and involving members of the community in different events and occasions were means commonly used by both categories of schools. Christian seminaries, however, developed more relationships through physical visitations as well as offering spiritual services and special seminars to the surrounding communities. Generally, Christian seminaries adhered to faith based life to maintain good discipline and academic performance, which did not exist in ordinary secondary schools.
Distance from teachers’ and students’ homes to school, from urban-based public libraries and between schools, as well as rural remoteness and the differing environments around some schools variously affected performance in academics and conduct in ordinary secondary schools. Christian seminaries had been so located as to avoid such distractors.
A majority of teachers in both categories of schools preferred discussion and question and answer methods. However, in ordinary public secondary schools, the often large sizes of classes and lack of teaching-learning materials combined to seriously limit effective use of group discussion and other participatory methods, reducing the pedagogical processes to sheer lectures on the part of teachers and non reflective note taking and note copying on the part of pupils.
With respect to the assessment mechanisms used in teaching, the findings disclosed that all teachers in the surveyed categories of schools set examinations at the end of each academic term and year. However, evaluation processes in Christian seminaries were, in addition, characterised by weekly assignments as part of strategies to engage their boarding students in productive work, while in ordinary secondary schools assignments could normally be given at the end of topics in the syllabus.
Following the major differences found between both categories of schools, the Christian seminaries seemed more likely to invoke, inspire and sustain a disciplined way of life among institutional participants (students and staff) than would, and did, lay public schools. Academic performance levels, as has been observed, seem to follow these lines.
Conclusions
On the basis of the findings recounted above, a number of conclusions can be drawn.
There are as many reasons and factors behind violating school rules and regulations as there are various types of discipline-related problems in the studied schools. However, the type and range of these problems are more prevalent in ordinary secondary schools, with a greater negative impact on school discipline and academic performance, than in Christian seminaries.
The kind of school rules and their formulation processes, communication strategies and forms of punishment execution seem to exert differential impact on the level of discipline and learning environment in the two categories of school. There are as many strategies to communicate school rules and regulations to students and teachers as there are various types of punishment meted upon breaking these school rules. While Christian seminaries are characterised more by use of handbooks of school rules, frequent student-head-of-school meetings and students’ interactions, followed by ultimate use of penal manual work and instant dismissal, ordinary public schools are rather limited in this respect, resorting to either caning or simply ignoring student misdeeds. Student suspension or dismissal as a last resort is more difficult and more bureaucratic in management decision making.
Better remuneration packages for staff, faith based orientation sessions and explicit and transparent assessment criteria, as well as early rigorous recruitment and selection procedures for teachers and students, as practiced in Christian seminaries, seem to associate more with a contented and disciplined academic environment than without these elements. Absence of these, as in most lay secondary schools, tends to invoke an environment of normlessness, defiance and discontent.
A leading advantage for Christian seminary management is maintaining an amicable relationship between them and the surrounding communities, which is rooted in offering faith-based physical visitations and spiritual services, over and above the school-parent contacts, sharing of resources, and invitations to various school events that are also practised by ordinary secondary schools.
The location of school premises variously affects school discipline, where Christian seminaries are so located as to avoid deficiencies resulting from rural remoteness, to optimize sharing of library resources with other educational institutions and to keep at bay a hostile business and teenager neighbourhood environment that characterises premises of many ordinary secondary schools.
In ordinary secondary schools, teaching strategies that rely heavily on non-participatory methods, and assessment mechanisms that rely merely on summative evaluation, add to large class sizes and limited teaching-learning material resources in slowing down the pace of learning and performance. On the contrary, the Christian seminaries take advantage of the small class sizes, use of participatory methods, adequate teaching-learning materials and formative and summative assessment strategies to outsmart their counterparts in terms of academic performance and effective learning outcomes.
Recommendations
On the basis of the research findings and conclusions drawn in the preceding sections, the following recommendations are made:
Recommendations for practical action
A system should be devised whereby members from Christian seminaries and other religious-run schools have an opportunity to meet frequently with ordinary secondary school community members to share experiences on discipline-related matters vis-Ã -vis academic performance. Their mutual understanding can be expected to help both sides to look into and act upon the variables that weaken their sides.
The government, in collaboration with community local authorities, should exert more effort aimed at motivating teachers in ordinary lay schools, through adequate and timely salary payments, improved conditions of service, availability of teaching-learning materials and improved school infrastructure. This gesture can only raise teachers’ self-esteem and the status of the teaching profession, leading to a reduction in the malpractices that negatively impact on school discipline and academic performance.
Parents and teachers are the most powerful influence on the child’s life experiences, especially on educational outcomes. Reasonable efforts should thus be made by both categories of schools to initiate wider involvement of parents and caretakers in school matters, including in the formulation and implementation of school rules. It is understood that more aware and more knowledgeable parents will be better disposed to guiding and helping their children in doing what is expected than parents who are completely ignorant of policies and processes that operate at their children’s school. To this effect, parent-teacher associations (PTAs) should be established as a matter of policy for all schools, where some parents could be elected as “school representatives” within the community.
Since students are targeted beneficiaries of school rules and academic interventions, there is a need for management of both categories of schools to devise ways of involving the students more in matters relating to formulation and implementation of school rules and regulations for an effective non-oppressive school discipline.
Since Christian seminaries are also supposed to be centres for producing an integrated, all-round human being, remedial measures should be given more weight than dismissal so as to safeguard the different talents found within students who happen to appear to be weak academically. This is to say that the pass mark criterion alone should not be taken as an independent yardstick in deciding on the stay on chances of a student.
As the surrounding environment invariably affects the school, quality standards and conditions for identifying a location for school premises should be strictly followed in order to avoid negative influences on school discipline and on academic performance.
Recommendations for further study
This study examined the relationship between school discipline and academic performance in Christian seminaries vis-Ã -vis ordinary (“lay”) secondary schools. Another study could be conducted to explore the relationship between school discipline and academic performance in Christian seminaries vis-Ã -vis Muslim seminaries to illuminate the differences between categories of seminaries that might affect discipline and performance. This is important because not all kinds of seminaries may necessarily be based on the same foundational principles or bound by the same religious or axiological precepts.
The study was confined to only six Christian seminaries and four ordinary secondary schools. The four ordinary (secular) secondary schools belong to the academically least-performing schools. Further research could be conducted involving more and better-performing schools countrywide for firm generalizations, singling out similarities and differences which might have implications for policy making related to school discipline and academic performance.
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