Social factors influencing adolescent drug abuse in Tanzania secondary schools
We use drugs in foods like vitamins. But these are both necessary and beneficial. We use drugs as prescribed by doctors. Drugs are harmful or even fatal if they are used for purposes not intended, or in the wrong way (Kariuki, 1989).
Recent studies in Tanzania show that a large percentage of adolescents have had experiences with drugs or substances like tobacco and alcohol at a young age. At the same time they lack basic knowledge about the effects and dangers of its consumption. This ignorance often puts them at risk, and can lead directly to health problems, diseases, poor attendance in schools hence the failure in their academic performance.
Backgrounds
Drug use has a long history. The Chinese knew about cannabis sativa in 2700 B. C. (Kariuki, 1989). Drug use is becoming a major issue all over the world, following the introduction of heroin and related substances. Almost every day one can hardly miss news or information on drug abuse, drug trafficking, or people caught in some kind of drug business, both at national and international levels (Malima, 1995).
Although the magnitude of the drug problem in Tanzania has not yet been well estimated by a comprehensive scientific study, it is clear that there are a significant number of Tanzanian adolescents (youths) who use drugs, and are being used as couriers in the international drug traffic (Mbatia, 1994). There is a puzzle, however, over the availability of drugs in Tanzania. The majority of Tanzanians do not know the origin of drugs or their accessibility. The drug business is so secretive that when one is not in the 'loop' of the business, she or he may not know that it exists, and that there are drug related problems.
According to Msambichaka, Mjema, and Ndanshau (1994), drugs commonly heard in Tanzania are hashish, raw opium, bhang, marijuana, mandrax, and heroin. These drugs are given slang terms such as 'ice' for crack cocaine (the Economists, 1993); 'unga' Kiswahili word denoting flour) for heroin, 'msokoto' 'ganja', 'sigara kubwa', and 'mneli' for the ones smoked like Cigars.
Other drugs used include aerosol or gaseous fumes other than smoke which make people 'escape' from realities. Examples of drugs commonly used by the Tanzanian adolescents (youths), secondary school students in particular
Cocaine is grown in Bolivia and Peru. Today cocaine is taken in the form of either crystal or powder (crack). Cocaine can be smoked, sniffed, or injected into the body. Cannabis (in herbal form) and other psycho tropic substances originate from many sources all over the world. The media in Tanzania has showed frequent interceptions of the drug on its way to other countries. The drug is said to be brought in the country from other places (Mbatia, 1994:41).
Bhang (Marijuana) is grown in some places in Tanzania, such as Mbeya, and Iringa, where it is believed to be' consumed as a vegetable or relish during meals. In Shinyanga and Tabora regions, bhang is grown and used as a stimulant to enable a person work longer hours in the farm.
Tanzania communities are experiencing the following problems, Unemployment, poverty, child-headed households, AIDS Orphans, crime, corruption, nepotism, and valued political patronage all these may be part and parcel of the factors influencing drug abuse and the involvement of learners in drug use. There are drug dealers who supply learners with drugs and use them to sell the drugs in schools to their fellow students; the researcher found that learners are abusing drugs like cigarettes, alcohol, cocaine and marijuana. Therefore school administrators should have some lists of disciplinary measures and procedures to be followed when a learner is in possession of drugs.
Statement of the Problem
Drug abuse amongst learners from secondary schools in Tanzania is increasing. Learners, who abuse drugs, are coming from different socio economic backgrounds. Some are from broken families, some are from “normal” families, some are from rich families and some are from poor families. So in this study I would like to determine which social factors influencing adolescent drug abuse.
Purpose of the study
The purpose of this study is to explore the social factors influencing adolescent drug abuse in Tanzania secondary schools, Dar es Salaam city secondary schools in particular.
Objectives of the study
More specifically, the research sought to address the following objectives;
To determine how social status affects the abuse of drugs among adolescents in Tanzania secondary schools.
To determine the social factors contributing to drug abuse among adolescents in Tanzania secondary schools.
To determine the effects of family structures on the adolescents drug abuse.
To determine the effects of peer pressure on the adolescent drug abuse.
To determine how educators experiences the drug abuse among learners.
Research hypotheses
The research is going to be guided by the following Null hypotheses;
There is no significant relationship between social status and the abuse of drugs among adolescents.
There is no significant relationship between family structures and the adolescent drug abuse.
There is no significant relationship between peer pressure and the adolescent drug abuse.
Research questions
Main question: what are the social factors contributing to drug abuse among adolescents (Learners) in Tanzania secondary schools, Dar es Salaam secondary schools in particular?
Sub questions:
How does the social status affect the abuse of drugs among adolescents (learners) in secondary schools?
What is the effect of family structures on the adolescent drug abuse?
What are the social factors contributing to drug abuse among learners in secondary schools?
How do educators experience the drug abuse among learners?
What is the effect of peer pressure on adolescent drug abuse?
The identified independent and dependent variables from the formulated research hypotheses
From formulated hypotheses the following variables were identified;
a) From there is no significant relationship between social status and the abuse of drugs among adolescents.
Independent variable: Social status
Dependent variable: Abuse of drugs
b) From there is no significant relationship between family structures and the adolescent drug abuse.
Independent variable: Family structures
Dependent variable: Adolescent drug abuse
c) From there is no significant relationship between peer pressure and the adolescent drug abuse.
Independent variable: Peer pressure
Dependent variable: Adolescent drug
Literature review
Introduction
According to Polit, Beck and Hungler (2004), a literature review serves to identify a relevant theoretical or conceptual frame work for a research problem, lay the foundation for a study, inspire new research ideas and determine any gaps and inconsistencies in a body of research. In this study, the literature review will focus on various aspects of drug abuse, including the effects on adolescent drug abusers, their families and communities at large.
The literature review provides a general understanding of the variables that could contribute to drug abuse in adolescents. The literature will confirm that drug abuse affects the lives of adolescents holistically, namely their physical, mental, emotional, social, economic and spiritual health.
Drug abuse as an International problem
Due to socio economic status, developing countries tend to have more complex problems with the abuse of substances like tobacco smoking, alcohol drinking, use of cannabis and the sniffing of glue and other volatile substances. With social and economic development, however according to Scanlon (2001), this picture tend to change, increasing movement of people, better communication technology and improved socio economic status to name but a few, also influence the drug trade and increase the drug abuse problem.
Drugs can be found all around us and no country can claim that drugs do not affect their societies (Rogers and McGee, 2003). The problem with drugs and alcohol abuse is that it “drains the physical, intellectual and economic resources of each individual as well as their families, communities and countries who often least can afford it”.
Developing regions (countries) of the world fall in the middle range in terms of hazards associated with their drinking patterns. These regions include the Republic of South Africa, South East Asia, Central and Eastern Europe. The hazard of intoxication prevalent in these regions includes casualties (all types of accidents), violence and social problems such as teenage pregnancies that can often be attributed to adolescents’ alcohol abuse.
Drugs in Africa
Njuki (2004) Maintains that there are so many issues confronting Africa that substance abuse is not looked at the seriousness it deserves. Both illicit drug trafficking and substances abuse are increasing in Africa. Cannabis, heroin and alcohol are included among the drugs used across the African continent. Moreover the injection of heroin has caused heightened concern as intravenous drug use assists in the continue spread of HIV and AIDS (Njuki, 2004).
According to Dandala (2004), the fight against alcohol and drug abuse has not been given the same prominence as the fight against HIV and AIDS, yet the two are interlinked, Dandala (2004) emphasizes the breakdown of culture, urbanization and increasing use of the continent as a transit point in international drug trafficking and that the church must embrace its roles and ministry to persons and communities burdened by the ill effects of drug abuse.
Drugs in Tanzania
Drug abuse has become a national concern in Tanzania. Newspaper reports indicate drug abuse among youths. It is feared that in some primary and secondary schools in the country, up to 5% of the youth are said to have used bhang (Possi, 1998). Also, problems like the use of hard drugs such as cocaine and heroin are increasingly surfacing among adolescents. There are several cases associated with drug trafficking which may imply drug abuse.
The drug trafficking situation in Tanzania is also causing concern. Drug trafficking is reported to be on the rise, with 482 Tanzanians being held in 27 countries in connection with illicit drugs. A survey by the Anti drug Unit in the Ministry of Home Affairs in Tanzania shows that those held were found to have in their possession mandrax, cannabis, cocaine, heroin, and various other drugs normally considered illicit (Mbatia, 1994), also reports that a total of 35 Tanzania nationals were arrested during 1986 for trafficking in heroin and cocaine, in contrast to 4 in 1981. He further reports that from 1981-1991 a total of 10,000 persons were' arrested in matters connected with drug abuse and trafficking in Tanzania, of whom the majority were youths between 15 and 30 years old. This situation may have adverse effects on non-schooling youths and students. Schools are likely to witness increasing numbers of dropouts, failures, behavior disorders, and mental illnesses among students.
Reasons behind Drug Abuse
Drugs can act as hallucinogen (Msambichaka, et. al. 1994). Youths want to become 'high', or be in a state of euphoria and feel "cool". The users attribute the use of drugs to forgetting their social economic problems, and other social distress. This justification may be dangerous due to the fact that with the current economic and social problems, more youths may abuse drugs which may lead to creating a 'drug culture', and the problems associated with drugs.
Social Factors
Drugs and alcohol use can change depending on factors such as the availability of drugs, introduction of new drugs in drug markets, new models of administration and rapid social changes. Some factors play a more direct role in the causation of the drug abuse problems among adolescents such as certain psychological factors, for example lack of behavioural control, depression and lack of support due to chaotic home environments where there is no family stability (William and Covington, 1998). Family stability may be caused by many factors such as unrest, quarrels among family member; for example father versus mother, or parents versus children (Taylor and Carry, 1998).
Adolescents with emotional problems are “more likely to use drugs and to contemplate suicide. Another possibility is that the use of drugs aggravates pre-existing depression or other emotional problems. Drug and alcohol may also impair the judgment of teens considering suicide and making suicidal attempts more likely (Gordon, 2004).
Ineffective parenting
Children may have conduct disorders and difficult temperaments resulting from the manner in which they were brought up. For instance, if the parents and other family members engage in substance abuse, children are likely to develop a range of affective, behavioural, cognitive and social problems. Many of these children present poor school readiness and performance, low bonding and attachment to school (Barber, Bolitho and BeHand, 2003).
Lack of Mutual attachment and nurturing
Family factors are influential in the genesis of adolescent drug abuse and behavioural problems, poor relationships with parents and inadequate child rearing practices are closely linked to adolescent drug abuse (Johnson, 2000).
Theoretical frame work
Gilmer (1973) provides three theories of drug abuse as: changing social systems, interactional behaviours, and personality variations.
Changing social systems theory: At social level, drug abuse is a response to pressures generated by social change. For example, one sociological theory holds that drug addiction among lower class youth is a result of failure to get ahead in current social climate, 'withdrawal from the system through drugs', or turning to drugs to show opposition to the lifestyles of the 'established' generation.
Interactional Theories: The theories hold that opportunities for a person to use drugs are generated by his or her association with users. Thus a person finds support and varying rein forcers from his peers, and becomes a member in the group. Interactional theories include conforming to peer group expectations where drug usage is part of the expected behaviour, along with certain tasks in music, clothes, and leisure activities.
Theory of personality: The theories focus on psychological needs, for example, escape behaviour. Gilmer (1973) argues that one popular view of marijuana is that it is a relatively safe way to escape from reality. A related view holds that people with severe insecurity have underlying emotional problems and neurotic conflicts that predispose them to turn into drugs.
It has been theorized that individuals may use heroin or other opiates to relieve anxiety, to drop out of society, or to fulfill self-destructive wishes. Thus personality theory is opposed to interactional theory.
Despite these theories, it is hard to pinpoint one theory as the causative agent for drug abuse or drug trafficking in Tanzania. However, the following is a summary of reasons why youths take drugs:-
Drugs are said to increase performance and endurance as in cases of athletes. Several athletes have been caught and found guilty of using drugs to facilitate their performance. One such incidence was that of Athumani Idd Chuji, a soccer player from Tanzania national team who used drug (bhang or Marijuana) in soccer, and was banned from the 2008 African nations champion league.
Insufficient influence of the family over the individual's actions and lack of parental guidance, the situation may arise due to family disruptions and disfunctioning, leading to separation or divorce. Further, working parents do not have time to take care of their children, while poor social economic conditions my lead to drug trafficking and use as a source of income and escape.
Personal factors like low success at school and poor interpersonal relationship between individuals may be the cause in some cases of drug abuse. When students cannot perform well in school, they may resort to drugs as an escape. Skinner (1965) agrees with this by arguing that drug use and addiction is a form of escape behaviour. He labels it as escape behaviour because certain drugs provide temporary escape from conditioned or unconditioned aversive stimulation, as well as from accompanying emotional responses. People take drugs to get temporary relief from social economic problems, or what they would call painful thoughts.
There are people who employ drugs for situational purposes like trying to keep awake during examinations, when on a long journey, or doing some work that requires one to be awake at night. Night shifts may cause someone to use drugs. In Tanzania, some drivers chew 'mirungi' (leaves from some types of trees growing in some areas of Kilimanjaro region) so that they can drive long distances at night without falling asleep on the way.
Effects of drugs on individuals
All drugs affect the brain. That is why they are called psychoactive drugs since they alter feelings (mood altering), and work primarily in the areas of brain called the limbic system, the part where the person's feelings are altered.
It is estimated that there are more than 30 million drug addicts world-wide, with heavy concentration among the adolescent, and that drug addiction has spread through the populations, especially the youth (Mbatia, 1994). The exact number in Tanzania is yet to be known.
The addicts are affected in different ways depending on the type of drug. Marijuana causes relaxation, intensified perception of stimuli, increased self-confidence, a sense of enhanced awareness and creativity, impaired motor coordination, reduced short term memory, and distorted judgments.
From its effects, it is apparent that students or youths using marijuana may have their brain impaired, lack creative minds, and the ability to think properly. In an experiment involving two groups, where one group was provided; with a placebo and the other marijuana, it was found out that the group which smoked marijuana could not recall words from a list of words they were given for recall (Santrock, 1984). Such students may not be able to remember things taught in class such as mathematical facts, different theories, or any other things requiring decoding in the school or classroom setting.
Further, given that the use of marijuana results into distorted judgments (Santrock 1984), youths using marijuana may not be able to think objectively 'and critically. This can have adverse effects on the school population. Critical and objective thinking are tools for scientific experiments. Santrock (1984) argues that when marijuana is used daily in heavy .amounts, it may impair the reproductive systems.
Research methodology
Introduction
This section describes the methodological procedure that is going to be used in the process of data collection and analysis. In particular it is going to focus on the study design, sampling technique, and data collection methods.
Research Design
“A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure. ”In fact, the research design is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data. As such the design includes an outline of what the researcher will do from writing the hypothesis and its operational implications to the final analysis of data. Decisions regarding what, where, when, how much, by what means concerning an inquiry or a research study (Kothari, 2004).
The focus of the study will be on social factors influencing adolescent drug abuse in secondary schools in Tanzania, a case study of some secondary schools in Dar es Salaam city.
Qualitative research approach is going to be employed in the study. The reason for using this approach is that what is going to be studied is happening in the real world of learners. The subjects or informants will describe their every day experiences relating to drug abuse in their own lives.
Thompson (2002) defines qualitative research as a collection of approaches to inquiry, which rely on verbal data. The common characteristics of qualitative research are that it describes and analyses people’s individual and collective social actions, beliefs, thoughts, and perceptions. A qualitative researcher collects data in face to face situations by interacting with selected persons in their natural settings (McMillan and Schumacher, 1997).
Sampling techniques
Sampling may be defined as the selection of some parts of an aggregate or totality on the basis of which a judgment or inference about the aggregate or totality is made. In other words, it is the process of obtaining information about an entire population by examining only a part of it (Kothari, 2004).
The researcher quite often selects only a few items from the universe or population for his study purposes. All this is done on the assumption that the sample data will enable him to estimate the population parameters. The items so selected constitute what is technically called a sample, their selection process or technique is called sample design and the survey conducted on the basis of sample is described as sample survey. Sample should be truly representative of population characteristics without any bias so that it may result in valid and reliable conclusions (Kothari, 2004).
A population is a group of elements or causes, whether individuals, objects or events, that conforms to specific criteria and to which we intend to generalize the results of the research (McMillan and Schumacher, 1997:169).
A sample is a group of subjects or situations selected from a large population. According to De Vos (1998:191), a sample comprises the elements of population considered for actual inclusion in the study. A sample can also be viewed as a subject of measurements drawn from a given population in which the researcher is interested with.
The sample for this study will consist of some few learners abusing drugs, an educator dealing with learners with such problem and a doctor or a clinic nurse.
Non probability sampling
In this study a non probability sampling is going to be used to select the samples for this research. The reason for using non-probability sampling is that the study will use the subjects who happen to be accessible or who may represent certain type of characteristics. This form of sampling is the most common type in educational research (White, 2005:119).
Non probability sampling is that sampling procedure which does not afford any basis for estimating the probability that each item in the population has of being included in the sample. Non probability sampling is also known by different names such as deliberate sampling, purposive sampling and judgment sampling. In this type of sampling, items for the sample are selected deliberately by the researcher; his choice concerning the items remains supreme. In other words, under non probability sampling the organizers of the inquiry purposively choose the particular units of the universe for constituting a sample on the basis that the small mass that they so select out of a huge one will be typical or representative of the whole.
In such a design, personal element has a great chance of entering into the selection of the sample. The investigator may select a sample which shall yield results favourable to his point of view and if that happens, the entire inquiry may get vitiated (Kothari, 2004).
Purposive sampling
According to McMillan and Schumacher, (1997), this type of sampling is based entirely on the judgment of the researcher, in that sense a sample is composed of elements that contain the most characteristics, representative or typical attribute of the population. On the basis of the researcher’s knowledge of the population, judgment is made about which subject should be selected to provide the best information to address the purpose of the research. For example in this study, it may be most informative to interview learners who abuse drugs rather than a sample of all learners.
Purposive sampling requires that information be obtained about variations among the sub units before the sample is chosen. The researcher then searches for information rich key informants, groups, places or events to study.
Data collection methods
Data collection methods help the researcher to collect the required information under study. The instruments that are going to be used in this study are interviews, documentary sources review and questionnaires.
Interviews
In my study, an interview schedule will be developed to collect data regarding views and opinions about social factors influencing adolescent drug abuse. During the interviews the subjects or respondents are expected to answer different questions pertaining to the topic under study. Interviews will be flexible in the sense that the mode of questioning will change depending on the occasion or situation and the subjects will have the opportunity to ask for further information.
Documentary sources review
The other instrument which will be used in this study is documentary review. Document is any written or recorded material (Guba and Lincoln, 1994). Documentary review helps to distil relevant information for the problem under study. The types of documents which are widely used are diaries, published statistical bulletins, medicine records, textbooks in libraries, slide tapes, remote sensing and other records. In this study, documents that are going to be reviewed are readings about Drugs from text books in libraries, newspapers, different journals about drug abuse and its impacts on individuals and community at large of different years.
Questionnaires
A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or typed in a definite order on a form or set of forms. The questionnaire is mailed to respondents who are expected to read and understand the questions and write down the reply in the space meant for the purpose in the questionnaire itself. The respondents have to answer the questions on their own (Kothari, 2004)
In my study I will use only one form of questionnaire, that is, closed-ended questionnaire. Questionnaire is a formatted set of questions that is drawn up to meet the objectives of the study. The key factor in the construction of questionnaires is relevance of the questions to the goals of the study and to the individual respondents. This instrument will be administered to the students so as to obtain the required information related to the study. Students of the selected schools are expected to provide information on drugs and drug abuse.
Best and Khan (2004), consider the questionnaires as the general category of inquiry form includes data gathering instruments through which respondents answer questions or respond to statements in writing. The advantage of using questionnaire is that there is possibility of reaching distant respondents. Questions are well planned and can always be modified and adapted. However, its limitations are financial expenses, the possibility of loss of material on transit and sometimes respondents returning the questionnaires very late or not returning them at all.
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