Conscience as a foundation of ethical conduct (Notes)
Latin word “Conscientia” or “cum scientia” which means “with science” or “with knowledge.”
Conscience therefore means to judge with knowledge or with reason. French word “Consiens” which means “self knowledge”.
In the popular mind, conscience is often thought of as an “inner voice”, telling us what to do or warning us on what to avoid. It is a sense of right and wrong. It is that moral faculty which tells people subjectively what is good and evil and which manifests their moral obligation to them.
Conscience is a function of intellect concerned with actions that can be good or bad. It deals with the practical question: “what ought I do here and now in this concrete situation?
Conscience is a moral faculty, which manifests to human beings their moral obligations and impels them to fulfil them. It is a practical moral judgment, which tells human beings, in the concrete situation what their moral obligations are. It is a judgment of the practical reason. It is the centre of the human person, the insight, or the foresight. Conscience is more than mere reason, because
it is more than mere will, more than mere feeling. It is the depth of human existence, the core of the person in his directedness towards his ultimate goal.
Every human person is given the ability to make correct judgments right from the time of conception. Conscience is the same practical intelligence we use to judge what to do or avoid in other affairs of life: how should I protect my health or life, how should I invest my money? Like other human judgments, conscience can go wrong or it can make mistaken moral judgments.
Conscience works hand in hand with the human mind or intellect, heart and soul. It involves a kind of self-examination or self-evaluation.
What is conscience according to philosophy?
- The moral sense of right and wrong that governs a person's thoughts and actions.
- Regulation of one's actions in conformity to this sense.
- A supposed universal faculty of moral insight.
- Conscientiousness; diligence.
- A feeling of guilt or anxiety e.g. he has a conscience about his unkind action.
- Obsolete consciousness or awareness.
- Conscience is a motivation deriving logically from ethical or moral principles that govern a person's thoughts and actions.
- An inner voice that judges your behaviour.
- A sense of duty, sense of shame - a motivating awareness of ethical responsibility.
The role of conscience
Conscience has two major functions or roles namely; memory and judgment. It has a memory function of remembering whether a certain human act has been performed or not. This is called psychological conscience. It also has the function of judging whether the past, present, or future human act conforms to moral rules or not. This is called moral conscience, which is our scope.
“Always let your conscience be your guide”: how sound is this advice? Much depends on one’s understanding of what precisely the conscience is. The assumption behind the quotation is that it constitutes some kind of inner self, pure and untainted by selfishness and all the vices of the person seen by others and with whom they must deal. It has been described as ‘another man within me that’s angry with me’; more cynically ‘as the inner voice that warns us that someone may be looking’. Either way, it is being described as an entity in its own right, capable of judgment on its own.
Conscience is a judgment that commands, forbids, allows, and advices on an action. It declares an action obligatory, prohibited, permissible, or prudent. It therefore acts as a ‘guide’ and also as a ‘judge’ because it directs the person whether to do or omit the action. It functions before the action, hence, is ‘antecedent’.
Many people have spent their lives following the dictates of their consciences; some, by the same measure have risked, and even surrendered their lives. John Nepomukeno’s (a Catholic priest) conscience led him to respect the confessional secrecy; Martin Luther’s conscience led him to denounce the authorities whom he had been brought up to accept as of God; on a more universal level men have found themselves physically incapable of the act of adultery, despite intense sexual desire because of a deep conscientious objection to marital infidelity.
Most of us probably make our list of behaviour we could not indulge in, acts we could not perform, because of the dictates of our consciences, and we could perhaps give approval to Mark Twain who wrote: “I have noticed my conscience for many years, and I know it is more trouble and bother to me than anything else I started with.” The implication is that the conscience is something we inherit at birth, remaining a fellow traveller with us throughout our lives. However, the conscience lacks consistency, either between people in general or in any individual in particular. Like other human judgments, conscience can go wrong or it can make mistaken moral judgments.
Basic characteristics of conscience
It is an inner power which warns, condemns, praises and guides.
Conscience is associated with duty and obligation, that is, it warns and tells one what to do and what not to do.
It is characterized with a spirit of tenderness, pity, true love and secrecy. In human life there are things which are not supposed to be revealed e.g. confessions, medical doctor’s secrecy, court secrecy, etc. this is conscience clause or professional secrecy.
It presupposes the right use of reason (intelligence).
The limits of conscience
How reliable a guide is conscience? People often say, “follow your conscience” or you should never go against your conscience,” but not only is such advice not very helpful, it may sometimes be bad advice.
First, when we are genuinely perplexed over what we ought to do, we are trying to figure out what our conscience ought to be saying to us.
Second, it may not always be good for us to follow our conscience. It all depends on what our conscience says. Our conscience might reflect moral reflections that cannot withstand critical scrutiny.
Just think of what appalling acts of behaviour have been, and still are, performed with a clear conscience (and sometimes in the name of conscience). In the name of conscience, some old women with red eyes have been executed as witches, opponents to political regimes have been tortured to the point of death, different religions have fought each other in the name of holy wars, mention it.
In all kinds of everyday matters, people’s consciences vary as to the issues they feel conscientious about. Even within one individual this so called traveller is inconsistent. Matters about which I had conscientious feelings years ago no longer affect me; other matters have taken the place of these earlier ones. We may let our conscience be our guide, to be confirmed every time we face a similar problem; but new experiences will require us, so to speak, to reopen any investigation; and the conscience may well change. The conscience may then, be the means whereby we know, or are fairly sure of, what is right for us at any particular moment.
Reflection: It appears that this conscience that travels with us is as changeable as an April day: how then can we possibly say that it is the final guide to moral behaviour?
The point here is not that you ignore your conscience but that the voice of conscience is itself something that can be critically examined. A pang of conscience is like a warning. When you feel one, you should definitely stop and reflect on the rightness of what you are doing. On the other hand, you cannot justify your actions simply by saying you were following your conscience. Terrible crimes have been committed in the name of conscience.
Types or divisions of conscience
Conscience is not the standard or norm of morality; right reason is the moral norm and conscience is the application of this standard of judgment of the moral value of the action.
i. A Good Conscience:
This St. Paul expresses various ways. In one place he simply terms it, a "good conscience toward God;" in another, "a conscience void of offense toward God and toward man." But he speaks still more largely in the text: "Our rejoicing is this, the testimony of our conscience, that in simplicity," with a single eye, "and godly sincerity, we have had our conversation in the world." 2Cor 1:12 Meantime he observes, that this was done, "not by fleshly wisdom," commonly called prudence, "but by the grace of God;" which alone is sufficient to work this in any child of man.
ii. A Tender Conscience
A tender conscience is that which forms objectively correct judgments with comparative ease even in finer distinctions between good and evil. It is exact in observing any deviation from the word of God, whether in thought, or word, or work; and immediately feels remorse and self-condemnation for it.
iii. Antecedent conscience
It is called antecedent if the judgment on the morality of an action and the obligation to perform or omit it is passed before the action is translated into reality. The antecedent conscience commands, exhorts, permits or forbids. It acts before the act. Here conscience acts as a guide.
iv. Consequent conscience
It is the judgment of the mind on the morality of an action already performed. Conscience is called consequent if it evaluates a deed already done or omitted. The consequent conscience either approves what has been done, giving peace to the mind and spiritual joy, or disapproves of what was done, thus causing remorse and a sense of guilt. Here conscience acts as a judge.
v. Certain conscience
A certain conscience passes judgment without fear that the opposite may be true or without error. For moral certainty it suffices that all reasonable fear be excluded. For example, a person who has paid back the amount of money he owned his friend has a certain conscience.
vi. Right conscience
A right conscience is a kind of conscience which judges as good what is really good, and as evil what is really evil. Conscience is right or correct when moral judgment agrees with the objective norms of morality. For example, a person who judges that it is not right to get a divorce simply because his wife is no longer beautiful has a right conscience; a student who judges that it is not right to cheat in exams simply because of getting a good grade has a correct or right conscience; a student who judges that it is not right to write in library book because it is public property also has a right conscience.
vii. An informed conscience
Is one that has sought to inform and educate itself about a particular moral issue. For Catholics informing one's conscience will always involve a prayerful reflection on what scripture and the official teaching of the church has to say on a particular issue.
viii. A doubtful conscience
The doubtful conscience on the other hand is uncertain concerning the morality of an action.
Therefore it suspends its judgments; or it passes judgment but with reasonable fear of erring. Thus a youth who doubts whether it is right for him to see a controversial movie has a doubtful conscience.
ix. An erroneous conscience
It is erroneous when moral judgment defects from general principles of morality. It is one that is contrary to God's Word and the teachings of the church. One may have an erroneous conscience and not know it. For example, a couple may think that their marriage is recognized by the church when in fact it is not. A couple may think that "living together" prior to marriage is morally correct when in fact it is contrary to the teaching of the church.
x. A weak conscience
Is one that may know what is right but hasn't the courage or spiritual power to do what is right. Or it may know what is wrong and sinful and yet it does it; e.g., a young lady may know abortion is wrong but she does not have the psychological or moral strength needed to carry the baby to full term. A weak conscience is also one that is easily swayed by the opinions of other people.
xi. The perplexed conscience
Is the type of erroneous conscience which, in a conflict of duties, fears sin in whatever choice it makes. A widowed mother, who has received many benefits from a friendly family whose father has caused a car crash of which she was a witness, will easily find herself in the conflict between the obligation of gratitude to her benefactor and the obligation to tell the truth in the court, where she is cited as a witness.
In such instances, if the decision can be delayed, one must first postpone the action in order to obtain information and deliberate on it. But if the decision cannot be postponed, one must choose what appears to be the lesser evil. The perplexed conscience is classified as a type of erroneous conscience, because objectively only one of the two conflicting obligations can be binding.
xii. The Scrupulous conscience
A scrupulous conscience is one that frequently thinks that it is sinning when in fact it is not. For example, because of deformative and perfectionistic training in a particular area like sexuality, one may think that one is constantly sinning against the virtue of chastity. It has been said that a scrupulous person thinks that God is a tyrant. His God has an all seeing eye that watches his every move and is ready to pounce on him for every wrong act. A person with a scrupulous conscience needs to place himself under the guidance of a competent and compassionate confessor who will help to introduce him to the love and mercy of God.
xiii. Lax conscience
A lax conscience is one that is insensitive to the good that ought to be done and the evil that ought to be shunned. For example one may be a racist or one may have little or no social conscience or be very permissive in sexuality issues. The lax conscience is inclined on insufficient grounds, to judge a thing to be lawful which is sinful, or something to be a light sin which is actually a grave one. In a light minded way the lax conscience does not face up to the gravity of the moral obligation. This is a kind of conscience that does not judge things seriously. It is blunt and reckless. It does not bother to look for objective truth.
The Rule of conscience
The slogan “Let your conscience be your guide” has long been, for many, what morality is all about. Yet, despite their admiration for persons of conscience, philosophers have typically judged appeals to conscience as alone insufficient and untrustworthy for ethical judgment. Conscience vary radically from person to person and time to time; moreover, they are often altered by circumstance, religious belief, childhood and training. The reliability of conscience, then, is not self-certifying. Moral justification must be based on a source external to conscience itself. This external source is often the common morality or ethical theory.
Freedom and commitment of conscience
One of the basic rights of men is freedom of conscience as included in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights by the United Nations. Vatican II also declares, that a person “must not be forced to act contrary to his conscience. Nor must he be prevented from acting according to his conscience” (Declaration on Human freedom no. 3). Man has the right to freedom of conscience.
However, a right is limited by duty. I may exercise my right up to the point where my duty to others supersedes (replaces) my right. A right ceases to be a right when it injures others’ rights.
Duty is the moral necessity to do or omit something; it is the absolute demand for realization that some value makes on one’s inner freedom.
Freedom refers to the power or ability of the human mind to choose a course of action or make a decision without being subject to restraints imposed by antecedent causes, by necessity, or by divine predetermination. Human beings possess freewill, if they do not, then they cannot be held responsible for their actions, then the issue of morality becomes meaningless in that case.
The right to freedom of conscience comprises two claims
a) The right not to be forced to act contrary to one’s conscience but motivated by a sense of duty. This right is unconfined.
b) The right not to be constrained from acting according to one’s conscience. This right meets with restrictions where it happens to collide with the demands of the common welfare. For example, can conscience entitle religious fanatics to hijack planes and shoot hostages in order to compel compliance with their demands?
In availing any freedom man must respect the moral principle of personal and social responsibility. In exercising their rights individuals and social groups are bound by the moral law to have regard for the rights of others, their duties to others and for the common good of all. If an individual or a group is not able to meet these demands, society has the right to defend itself against such misguided threats by use of civil authority.
Freedom of conscience does not mean freedom from conscience. Freedom is a condition necessary for the exercise of virtue, but it is not a virtue in itself. It does not make a person good. Freedom enables us to do what we want, but it does not tell us what to want. Freedom is very important in the proper functioning of the conscience. Therefore, only in true freedom can a person be truly committed to do what is good and avoid what is evil. Every human person needs to be free in order to commit himself or herself to doing good and avoiding evil. It helps one make responsible decisions and judgments in whatever one does. Freedom involves will power and intellect.
However, human freedom can be misused e.g. in cases of rape, theft, corruption, etc. We should therefore be free and responsible for our actions; freedom and responsibility entail each other. We are responsible for the free choices we make. Hence, the slogan, “Always let your conscience be your guide”. We must be careful about everything that could be affected by our choices: everything that could be affected by my choices is within my responsibility, and I must not fail to do everything I can to maximize overall net good, on the whole and in the long run.
Sin and freedom of conscience
This debate involves above all the problem of autonomy and freedom, especially as regards the individual conscience and the understanding of sin. In this context we can see the closer connection between the question of conscience in relation to the African concept of sin, the existential perspective of conscience where by the person is responsible for his or her sin, and then the communitarian dimension of the responsibility for sin and then the communitarian dimension of the responsibility of the individual conscience.
Individual freedom
To what extent can one speak of individual freedom in the African community? Africans never understand freedom independently of the community. The freedom and even the existence of the individual depend upon the freedom and existence of the community and vice versa. By contributing to the community, the individual gives himself freedom. Africans understand freedom not only in the sense as freedom “from.” It is at the same time freedom “for,” but most importantly of all, it is freedom “with.” Freedom does not only exist for me: it is for everyone, since I myself am free only when everyone is. Here once more, we find the fundamental principle of African thinking: “I am because we are, and because we are, I am too.”
This principle can be expressed by means of the principle “cognatus sum”: “I am related, therefore I am.” A genuine relationship will always tend to grant others genuine human existence, and this includes freedom. We may gain the impression from what has been said that the individual exists one-sidedly for the sake of the community, but Africans hold that the community is not allowed to crush the individual members, the community is obliged to grant them the space necessary for the unfolding of their personal existence. We can conclude saying that, even where the conscience makes individual decisions, it must always have communitarian aspects, and must never lose sight of the good of the community.
Conscience and freedom in an African context
Freedom is a condition necessary for the exercise of virtue, but it is not a virtue in itself. It does not make a person good. Freedom enables us to do what we want, but it does not tell us what to want. Freedom is very important in the proper functioning of the conscience. Therefore, only in true freedom can a person be truly committed to do what is good and avoid what is evil. Every human person needs to be free in order to commit himself or herself to doing good and avoiding evil.
It helps one make responsible decisions and judgments in whatever one does. Freedom involves will power and intellect. However, human freedom can be misused e.g. in case of rape, theft, corruption, etc. We should therefore be free and responsible for our actions; freedom and responsibility entail each other. We are responsible for the free choices we make.
Are there any free choices? By free choices we mean a choice is free if and only if it is between open practical alternative (i.e. do this, or to do that) such that there is no factor but the choosing itself which settles which alternative is chosen. We must care about everything that we could affect by our choices: everything that I could affect by my choices is within my responsibility, and I must not fail to do everything I can to maximize overall net good, on the whole and in the long run.
Limitations of human freedom
Human freedom has its limitations. Our choices can be limited by:
a) Physical limitations (health, age, bodily physique),
b) Historical limitations (culture, language and symbols), and
c) Environmental limitations (time and space, climate and geographical).
However, as long as we remain rational beings, these limitations do not take away our freedom of choice. Here, we encounter the notions of acceptance and responsibility. The freest people in the world are those who have a sense of inner peace about themselves and their situations even in the midst of limitations and problems. Only a tranquil mind can afford to be creative, innovative. All depends on the attitude that we choose to adopt in any given circumstance. Accepting a situation which cannot be changed, and choosing a positive attitude toward suffering and meaning in life is the key to actualizing our freedom. Freedom demands responsibility. Responsibility means that we should take charge of our choice given situations and neither blame other nor our limitations for whatever we do or fail to do. We should never let others bear our responsibility. Freedom is the ability one has of self-determination, and this ability is rooted in the very consciousness one has of himself or herself. To get in touch, however, with one’s source of freedom is not easy. To discover our consciousness requires a new operation we have not been trained to perform, namely, to look inside ourselves, usually referred to as introspection.
Formation of conscience
Conscience represents both the more general ability we have as human beings to know what is good and right and the concrete judgments we make in particular situations concerning what we should do or about what we have already done.
We are not born with a fully formed conscience. As a child matures and reaches the age of reason, the ability to exercise his or her judgment of conscience slowly develops. There are many factors that contribute to the formation of conscience in an individual. Our family upbringing, education, life experience, our environment, the influence of friends, our faith etc. The purpose of the formation of conscience is to reach or help someone else reach an awareness of moral truth by which to direct one’s life to what is truly good and fulfilling. Formation is not simply a process of promulgating laws, rules, and regulations, plus, perhaps, special rules to apply in case there is doubt whether a law or rule applies: this is to view things legalistically. Rather, the goal of formation of conscience is to understand moral truth and to be able wisely to direct one’s life. The process of forming a conscience is a long process, it is a lifelong task.
In the process of forming our conscience we use
a) Head: Use your head to widen and test your understanding of what is good and right by seeking the wisdom of others. What do/would others say about this situation and why? Study, learn, ask questions, know facts, seek advice, pray, be willing to change one’s minds, prudently, deciding the best course of action. Use your head and heart to make a personal decision.
As I reflect on the wisdom of others and apply it to my situation, does my own understanding of what is at stake become clearer? Which direction gives me the greatest sense of peace? What is my conscience telling me to do? Do I really desire to do the right thing and desire the best for myself and others?
b) Hands: consistently put the right choice into practice, taking responsibility for consequences.
c) Heart: openness to conversion.
The process of forming one’s conscience is accomplished by the use of reflex principles, so called because the mind uses them while reflecting on the state of doubt which we use and ignorance in which it now finds itself.
The duty to form one’s conscience
Since conscience stands in need of illumination and guidance, a man is responsible for its formation. To call upon the judgments of one’s conscience without having striven to inform it properly is an insulting abuse. One should use the available resources to understand the truth of the moral situation facing one. The sources of information are the word of God, the moral norms handed down in society, findings of ethical sciences, elders, and so on. Also openness to correction, readiness to dialogue, and the acceptance of criticisms are important elements of the formation of conscience.
The necessary conditions for a well formed, true and upright conscience include: love for the truth.
We should always avoid destructive philosophies and deceptive ideas e.g. negative foreign influences under the disguise of modernization. A well-formed conscience is upright and truthful for it formulates its judgment according to reason, in conformity with the true good.
In order to form an upright conscience, one should acquire the habit and culture of reflection before speaking or acting. “Think before you act”. One should ask oneself. Are the words I’m going to speak constructive or destructive? Are they of benefit to anyone? Are my actions constructive or scandalous? Is God happy with my actions and words? We should always ask ourselves of the consequences of our deeds and words.
Formation of conscience is a lifelong task, so parents, educators, and leaders (political, religious) should constantly help children and the youth to form upright and active conscience i.e. they should be exemplary. Much emphasis should be put on ethical values such as honesty, truthfulness, prudence, commitment, transparency, accountability, responsibility, courage, etc.
Some of the important virtues or ethical values in the formation of conscience
- Justice is the first virtue of social institutions, as truth is of systems of thought. Each person should have an equal right. Liberty and equality are of key importance in conceptions of justice in particular. Each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive basic liberty compatible with a similar liberty for others. For the libertarian, a society is just when individual freedom is maximized.
Justice as equal treatment allows for equality of opportunity. Equality is a central characteristic of justice throughout the various ethical conceptions of justice. The principle of equal treatment and equality of opportunity is also of particular significance in terms of the equal treatment of genders.
Justice can also be participatory, this is justice with regard to participation meaning the fair, appropriate participation in decision-making of all those involved. Fair participation is an essential instrument capable of reducing a number of societal conflicts.
Justice can also be ecological, that is, justice with regard to ecology. This means the sustainable use and distribution of resources, as well as e reduction in and a fair distribution of ecological burdens. A fair distribution of resources and burdens extends to three dimensions: between generations living today, between today’s and tomorrow’s generations, and between human beings and their non-human environment.
- Truthfulness is one of the important virtues. Truth-telling, or veracity, can be defined as the avoidance of lying, deception, misrepresentation, and non-disclosure in interactions. It is intellectual honesty and emotional sincerity or honesty. It is an attitude of mind in which one admits the truth of facts. It is conformity between thought and thing. If our thought is conformed to things as they are, we have logical truth, the opposite of which is error. If things are conformed to someone’s thought of them, there is ontological truth; everything as known by God is ontologically true. If our speech conforms to things as they are, we have verbal truth, we speak true words. If our speech is conformed to our thought so that we can say what we think, we have moral truth, the opposite of which is a lie.
Truthfulness should be expressed in thought, intellect and reason. It should also be shown in conduct or action; emphasis should not be put on the ‘show off culture’ but rather on reality. We should be truthful to ourselves, to our creator and to our fellow human beings.
Human beings have the obligation to search for truth and defend it, this enables one achieve integral human development i.e. development of the whole person. This will eventually lead to society and humanity progress. Truthfulness should be translated into the culture of our lives.
The problem of truth - telling arises from the fact that a person may also have a right or duty to conceal the truth about what he or she thinks or feels, for each person has a right to privacy. We may be entrusted with a secret that must not be divulged (that must not be revealed). Take an example of a physician, must he or she always tell the patient the whole truth? Are there some occasions when our humanity fails to tell the truth? Truthfulness is opposed to the culture of telling lies. Lying is a morally evil act; therefore, every lie is a sin and should be shunned. Lying is viewed as an inherent wrong, i.e. something that we naturally consider unethical
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