Introduction to social ethics (Lecture notes)
In ordinary language, we frequently use the words ethical and moral (and unethical and immoral) interchangeably; that is, we speak of the unethical or moral person or act. On the other hand we speak of codes of ethics, but only infrequently do we mention codes of morality. Some reserve the terms moral and immoral only for the realm of sexuality and use the words ethical and unethical when discussing how the business and professional communities should behave toward their members or their public. What do all these words mean, and what are the relationships among them?
Ethics is the study of morals or human conduct. Ethics is a branch of philosophy i.e. it is moral philosophy or philosophical thinking about morality, moral problems, and moral judgment. This philosophical study is basically concerned with the purpose of determining what type of activity is good, right, and to be done, and what type of activity is bad, wrong, and to be avoided, so that man may live well.
As a philosophical study, Ethics is a science or intellectual habit that treats information derived from man’s natural experience of the problems of human life, from the point of view of natural reason. The original stimulus for all human action is the desire to be happy. This is deep rooted in the being of every man. This universal desire for happiness is known under various names such as ‘the urge for self perfection’, ‘the desire for success in life’, the drive of personal ambition’, to mention but a few.
Man’s problem throughout life is to select and do the kind of actions that are conducive to true happiness. Each human being should ask himself such questions:
a) What should I do, and what should I not do in my life?
b) Why should I do, what I should do, and why should I not do what I should not do?
c) What actions will give me true happiness?
In spite of all these, living a good moral life depends on personal thinking, choosing, and acting.
Ethics is not mathematical, and successful human living cannot be predetermined for the individual by any kind of science or philosophy. Each person is a distinct person, living under particular circumstances peculiar to him.
Human Acts versus Acts of Man
The actions of individuals supply the subject matter of ethics. We distinguish between actions that are voluntary (those that are intended) and actions that are involuntary (unintended). Ethics studies voluntary actions. This includes all actions and omissions over which man has and exercises personal control because he understands and wills these actions and omissions in relation to some ‘end’ he has in view. Such actions are under the direction of the intellect and will.
The actions or acts that a human being wills, knows, and voluntarily performs are called human acts (actus humani). They proceed from man as man through reason and from consent of free will.
They are actions man chooses for which he can be either praised or blamed. They can also rightly be called personal acts. On the other hand, acts which are involuntary or undeliberate are acts of man (actus hominis).
They are performed without intervention of intellect and free will. They do not characterize human activity as being human; for example, acts like breathing, digestion, reactions of anger and sympathy, acts of those who do not use reason like people asleep, lunatics, drunken people, etc.
Likewise distinguished from human acts are forced acts which, though effected with some insight and cooperation of the intellect, are carried out against a man’s personal decision and will. Some authors subsume forced acts under the acts of man as well.
Ethics, on the other hand begins with a concern for individual character including what we blandly call ‘being a good person’. But it is also the effort to understand the social rules which govern and limit our behaviour, especially those ultimate rules the rules concerning good and evil which we call ‘morality’. It is very clear that ethics and morality are very closely tied to the laws and the customs of a particular society. E.g. kissing in public and making a profit in a business transaction are considered moral in some societies while they are considered immoral in other societies.
The origin of Ethics
The word ‘ethics’ originates from the Greek word ‘ethos’ or the Latin word ‘mos’ or ‘mores,’ meaning ‘character’, ‘conduct’, or ‘custom’. The Greek thinkers such as Aristotle, Plato and Socrates saw that what makes a man good or bad is not one isolated human action, but the general pattern of all his free choices. On the other hand, the Latin philosophers such as Cicero, Seneca, and Marcus Aurelius used the word mos and mores to refer to ethics, hence the English words morals, morality and moral philosophy.
An ‘ethos’, as we use that term today, is the character of a culture. Ethics is the study of a way of life, our way of life – its values, its rules and justifications. It involves thinking about ‘good’, ‘right’, and ‘evil’ and what they mean. What is good, right and wrong or evil?
> Goodness – decency, kindness, honesty, integrity, righteousness
> Right – correct, true, accurate, exact, precise
> Wrong or evil – incorrect, mistaken, erroneous, not right, immoral, unethical, dishonest
The term ‘ethics’ is used in three different but related ways, signifying:
> A general pattern or “way of life”.
> A set of rules of conduct or “moral code”.
> Inquiry about ways of life and rules of conduct.
Ethics and morals
The terms ‘moral’ and ‘ethical’ are often used as equivalent to ‘right’ or ‘good’ and as opposed to ‘immoral’ and ‘unethical’. Some philosophers like to distinguish ethics from morality. To them morality refers to human conduct and values, and ethics refers to the study of those areas. Ethics does, of course, denote an academic subject, but in everyday parlance we interchange ethical and moral to describe people we consider good and actions we consider right. And we interchange unethical and immoral to describe what we consider bad people and wrong actions.
Ethics is about living a good and virtuous life according to the ethical virtues, that is, to become a virtuous person, while the modern notion of morality is primarily focused on the interests of other people and the idea of deontological constraints. That is, one acts morally because one has to meet certain standards and not because it supports one’s own good life.
Ethics
It refers to the systematic general science of right and wrong conduct. Ethics pertain to the beliefs we hold about what constitutes right conduct. Ethics are moral principles adopted by an individual or group to provide rules for right conduct. Ethics is the generic term for ethical and moral issues.
Morality is a special part of ethics. Morality is the object of ethics. Ethics is the philosophical theory of morality which is the systematic analysis of moral norms and values.
Morals or morality refers to the actual patterns of conduct and the direct working rules of moral action. Philosophers base ethics upon a reflective analysis of moral experience. Morality is concerned with perspectives of right and proper conduct and involves an evaluation of actions on the basis of some broader cultural context or religious context. Morality consists not only in our particular statements of conduct, but also in the general rules by which we justify an individual case. For instance, a conscientious student may say: “I will not write in this library book”. If someone asks for the reason behind this moral decision, the student may reply: “public property should be respected”. Such judgments belong to the moral situation which the ethicist studies.
Ethics and morals, however, are not concerned merely with what people do, but with what is generally accepted they should, must, ought to do, regardless of whether or not they do it.
Forms of morality
We can separate morality into two forms:
a) Reflective morality
Reflective morality is the type of morality that exhibits doubts about the basic moral judgments that are evident in our society. It challenges the correctness of the whole moral system by seeking proof for every statement the system poses. Reflective morality, from its name, requires reflection about the things that we take for granted while busy with our non introspective lives. Reflective morality requires that moral ideas are carefully examined and tested. There is a need to search or to observe adequate bases or principles for our judgments in particular and our whole moral system in general.
b) Customary or Traditional morality
On the other hand, customary morality is the more traditional take on morality. Traditional morality refers to the moral systems handed down through custom from generation to generation.
We might call this static morality. It uses the conventional or conservative knowledge and judgment of the society to assess the rightness or wrongness of an act. Traditional morality can become reflective and dynamic when those moral ideas that are simply handed down and accepted are subjected to analysis and criticism. Customary morality will look at the basic social norms and prevailing constructs of a particular society at a particular time in order to evaluate the correct answer to a moral question or to give out its moral judgment for a specific situation.
Definition of Social Ethics
The word social ethics is a scientific study which deals with different social aspects of human life.
It examines how a human person interacts with his or her surroundings. It gives the person principles of good moral conduct. It is the academic discipline concerned with examining and evaluating the commitments, values, and choices of any given society or culture both in relationship to itself and in relationship to other societies and cultures. Therefore it gives the person principles of good moral conduct of life. It examines how a human person interacts with his or her surroundings. It has more to do with what is good and right for a society, it asks about what societies and cultures do and should do.
Social ethics form an infrastructure for us to live as a society. Religion, charity, morality, and family values are all tools used to define standards of behaviour in our society. Morals are seen by many as an infrastructure on which a community depends. Immoral behaviour is seen as a threat to the community. More than anything it is a sense of social responsibility and public opinion that
define them for us all. Social ethics are defined by societal and cultural norms. Religion plays a big role in certain societies. The concept of charity to others and morality within one’s actions are important to many, especially those who subscribe to family values as a vehicle for their morals.
Social ethics vary in different parts of the world. The effect of religion on social norms also varies, but charity and morality remain key components of societal infrastructure. Immoral behaviour will always take place, but social responsibility and the power of public opinion combine to make social ethics an important part of everyday life.
Purpose of ethics as a discipline
Why study ethics? Why be moral?
The basic reason is that people become curious about their own actions and begin to reflect upon them, compare them, and seek their general principles. In the case of ethical reflection, we encounter certain difficulties. We are not always sure about what moral principle govern a particular decision. E.g. A young woman may face the question of whether to continue her education or go to work to help support her family. She may see the problem as one of loyalty to her family she owes it to them to sacrifice something in return because they have sacrificed to keep her in school. But she may recognize the importance of continuing her education to prepare her to make a significant contribution to society and to lay a sound foundation for a rich life by getting a complete education.
Our ethics are continually changing. Our society has experienced enormous changes over the past few decades in the realm of sexual morality; behaviour is accepted today which would have been wanton immorality 50 years ago (e.g. topless beachwear and sagging or drooping trousers for men, ‘see through’, mini-skirts, and body tights for ladies). Some of these changes have to do with changing economic and social conditions in our society; others are reflections of deeper ethical shifts, more emphasis on individual freedom and less emphasis on the differences between the sexes and traditional roles. Changes in ethics are always disturbing and disruptive; the study of ethics enables us to understand the nature of these changes and just as important, to discern the stable basis of values that underlies them.
We live in an ethically pluralistic society, in which it seems that there is no single code of ethics but many different values and rules. Some people in our society emphasize individual success and mobility; others emphasize the importance of group identity and stable cultural tradition. Some people insist that the ultimate value is individual freedom; others would insist that general welfare is more important, even if it interferes with individual freedom. For example; some people or societies consider it absolutely wrong to take a human life even life of an unborn foetus; others do not believe that such life counts as human; it should be sacrificed if necessary to the wellbeing and interest of the mother. Though these ethical differences are irreconcilable, it is important that we understand the nature of these differences, and this is much of what ethical discussion and debate is about.
Our ethics involves choice. It strives to give or provide signposts for responsible action in all areas of life. In fact freedom of choice is one of the main values of our ethics. But to choose between alternative courses of action or opposed values requires intelligent deliberation and some sense of the reasons why one should choose one rather than another. Having to choose between alternatives, however, is more than enough reason to be clear about their values and implications, and this too is a central function of ethics.
Ethical values are often in conflict. Even when people agree on certain values, there will inevitably be times when two or more accepted values run up against one another. Conflicting goals and customs force us to reconsider continually our ethical priorities; freedom of speech sometimes threatens safety, security or sensibilities e.g. when newspapers publish classified military secrets. The virtue of honesty must be balanced by concern for the consequences of telling the truth, and the virtue of courage must be measured against the danger one faces.
Ethics can help us make our own ideas clearer, more rational, and more responsive to the realities of life.
It helps us think clearly and critically about our values, and to decide whether we need to develop our values, and to decide whether we need to develop better ones, this is probably a process that never ends.
Most people, when they are genuinely honest with themselves, associate doing well with being a good person. Having moral character is still essential to most people’s conceptions of what makes a person flourish in his or her life. For example it is difficult to imagine a person being considered a success in life if he gains his wealth dishonestly. One of the principle reasons for being moral is that it is central to most concepts of human fulfilment. We could say that being moral is inherently good because it is foundational to a person’s flourishing in life, since doing well in life and being a good person still go together for most people.
Ethics are important because they give direction to people and societies who have some sense that they cannot flourish without being moral. In fact, it is unlikely that any sort of civilized society could continue unless it had concern for key moral values such as fairness, justice, truthfulness, and compassion.
Ethics helps us find answers for moral questions which are at the heart of life’s vital issues. Morality is primarily concerned with questions of right and wrong, the ability to distinguish between two, and the justification of the distinction. Closely related are such questions as, what is a good person? What things are morally praiseworthy? What constitutes a good life? And what would a good society look like? You cannot formulate an adequate worldview without providing answers to these questions. For example, morality is fundamental to politics, since politics and the law concern the way in which people ought to order their lives together in society.
Ethics helps us in dealing with the increasingly technological society. Technology comes along with many benefits but also many challenges. “Educating the mind without educating the heart is not education at all”. (Aristotle)
Divisions of ethics
Ethics can be divided into two broad divisions. These are:
i. General Ethics, which studies human acts and general principles of morality. This is our scope of this course.
ii. Special Ethics, which studies the morality of different departments of human activity, for example; Individual ethics, Family ethics, Life ethics, Environmental ethics, Medical ethics, Business ethics, Political ethics, Legal ethics, Cultural, Religious ethics, and so on.
Moral principles to guide decision making
Meara et al. (1996) describe six basic moral principles that form the foundation of functioning at the highest ethical level as a professional: autonomy, non-maleficence, beneficence, justice, fidelity, and veracity. These moral principles involve a process of striving that is never fully complete.
i. Autonomy
This refers to the promotion of self-determination, or the freedom of clients to choose their own direction. Respect for autonomy entails acknowledging the right of another to choose and act in accordance with his or her wishes, and to behave in a way that enables this right of another person.
ii. Non - maleficence
This means avoiding doing harm, which includes refraining from actions that risk hurting others. We have the responsibility to avoid engaging in practices that cause harm or have the potential to result in harm.
iii. Beneficence
This refers to promoting or doing good for others. We have the responsibility to respect the dignity and to promote the welfare of clients.
iv. Justice or fairness
This means providing equal treatment to all people. Everyone, regardless of sex, age, race, ethnicity, disability, socioeconomic status, cultural background, or religion, is entitled to equal access to all services.
v. Fidelity
This means that we should make honest promises and honour our commitments. We should fulfil our responsibilities of trust in our relationships.
vi. Veracity
This means truthfulness. Unless we are truthful with our fellows, the trust required to form a good working relationship will not develop.
Steps in making ethical decisions
When making ethical decisions, ask yourself these questions: “Which values should I rely on?
What values do I hold? Why do I hold certain values? It is important to acknowledge that emotions play a part in how we make ethical decisions.
In the many important decisions we make, the following steps can improve our decision making strategies and may also help us think through ethical problems:
a) Identify the problem or dilemma
Gather as much information as possible that sheds light on the situation. The first step toward resolving an ethical dilemma is recognizing that a problem exists and identifying its specific nature, that is, whether the conflict is ethical, legal, clinical, professional, or moral or a combination of any or all of these. Because most ethical dilemmas are complex, it is useful to look at the problem from many perspectives and to avoid simplistic solutions. Ethical dilemmas do not have ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ answers, so you will be challenged to deal with ambiguity (statements with more than one meaning). What is the problem? Why am I constantly running out of money and unable to meet expenses? Why am I scoring low marks? Why am I always quarrelling with my roommate? Defining the problem is the most difficult yet the most important phase in decision making.
b) Identify the potential issues involved
After the information is collected, list and describe the critical issues and discard the irrelevant ones. Evaluate the rights, responsibilities, and welfare of all those who are affected by the situation. Part of the process of making ethical decisions involves identifying competing moral principles.
Consider the basic moral principles of autonomy, non-maleficence (not harmful or evil), beneficence, justice, fidelity, and veracity and apply them to the situation. It may help to prioritize these principles and think throughways in which they support a resolution to the dilemma. Good reasons can be presented that support various sides of a given issue and different ethical principles may sometimes imply contradictory courses of action.
c) Review the relevant ethics codes
Ask yourself whether the standards or principles of your organization or institution offer a possible solution to the problem. Consider whether your own values and ethics are consistent with, or in conflict with, the relevant codes. If you are in disagreement with a particular standard, do you have a rationale to support your position? As scholars we should choose the socially acceptable practice or alternative. In other words we should form tentative conclusions which represent solutions to the problem or suggest some possible answers.
d) Know the applicable laws and regulations
It is essential for one to keep up to date on relevant state and federal laws that apply to ethical dilemmas. In addition, be sure you understand the current rules and regulations of your organization or institution.
e) Obtain consultation
At this point, it is generally helpful to consult with a colleague or colleagues to obtain different perspective on the problem. Consultation can help you think about information or circumstances that you may have overlooked. In making ethical decisions, you must justify a course of action based on sound reasoning. Consultation with colleagues provides an opportunity to test your justification. “Two heads are better than one head”.
f) Consider possible and probable courses of action
Brainstorming is useful at this stage of ethical decision making. By listing a wide variety of courses of action, you may identify a possibility that does not follow socially acceptable traditional beliefs or practices but may be useful. Discuss the options with your colleagues.
g) Enumerate the consequences of various decisions
Before any decision is made, one should bear in mind the consequences of that decision. If I decide rightly the end result will be good and if I decide wrongly the end result will be bad. The best action is the one with the best consequences. Consider using the six fundamental moral principles (autonomy, non-maleficence, justice, fidelity, and veracity) as a framework for evaluating the consequences of a given course of action.
h) Decide on what appears to be the best course of action
In making the best decision, carefully consider the information you have received from various sources. One should apply the ‘see’, ‘judge’ and ‘act’ methodology before reaching any good decision. The decision so arrived at must be all lasting decision and should square the problem for now and for the time to come. One should avoid solving a given problem by creating another.
Once you have made what you consider to be the best decision, do what you can to evaluate your course of action. Make a follow up to determine the outcomes and see if any further action is needed
Values and standards
Ethical values describe those ethical foundations from which individual and collective action takes its bearings, and against which it measures its correctness and appropriateness. Values identify that which is valuable and worth achieving. Value ethics is based on widely applicable fundamental values. Ethical standards are often equated with values.
What is a value?
A value refers to something precious or worth of importance, it can be spiritual or material e.g. life, love, money, education, happiness, etc. It is something highly relevant in life.
In ethics, ‘values’ denote orientation standards and objectives which guide and steer people’s actions. They are constitutive for every cultural, social and economic system and thus also for economic action. In the economy, ‘values’ denote the exchange, utility and capitalized value of goods, and serve as a yardstick for their scarcity. Their value is measured against demand, usefulness and relative rarity.
What are value clashes?
This refers to a situation where there are two almost equal values which influence the decision of a person. It is a conflicting situation whereby one faces a dilemma to choose what is more important. Values are always in clash because they are inter-related with each other. This reflects differing needs, points of departure, interests, aims and possible courses of action. For example, the clash between mining versus environmental conservation, the clash between cutting down trees for charcoal versus environmental conservation, education versus employment, pleasure versus studies, and so on.
How can we find an ethically responsible solution to value clashes? Whenever we are faced with value clashes we should consider the following:
> Choose the most precious and fundamental value at that moment of decision – making.
> Deal with something which is first – first things first e.g. first handle the first problem before moving to the next.
> Life values should be safeguarded at all costs e.g. truthfulness – for it brings about inner peace, justice, self-dignity or respect. Good choices lead to good results while bad choices lead to bad results.
Preference rules and value judgments in value clashes
What is preference?
By preference we mean things or values which have more priority in ethical decisions i.e. what I prefer compared to other alternatives. We should give more importance to what is most important at a time. What is your preference as a scholar? To be very hardworking and be successful in life or to have all the possible fun or pleasure and be a failure?
Preference rules attempt to solve a value clash by fixing a set of priorities regarding fundamental or practical values. For example, there is a value clash between “prosperity for everybody” and ecological sustainability” in that an increase of foodstuffs production and their worldwide trade or transport may result in ecological damage. Here, a preference rule may stipulate as follows:
If the short term satisfaction of needs may result in the destruction of long term basic necessities, then the protection of such basic necessities is preferable to the consumption of goods that are not necessary for survival.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Asfaw Semegnish & Kerber Guillermo (eds) (2005): The responsibility to protect, Geneva, WCC Publications.
Benezet Bujo (2001): Foundations of an African Ethic, The crossroad Publishing Company, New York.
Costic, V (ed): AIDS (1987): Meeting the community challenge, Middle green, England, St. Paul publications.
Finnis John (1983): Fundamentals of ethics, Washington D.C, Georgetown University press.
Hoseach Edward G (ed) (1999): Essays on combating corruption in Tanzania, Dar es salaam.
Krasna Beth (ed) (2005): Thinking ethics: How ethical values and standards are changing, Geneva, Profile Books.
Magesa Laurenti (2002): The Moral traditions of Abundant Life, Nairobi, Pauline Publications Africa.
Milton A. Gonsalves (1995): Fagothey’s Right and Reason, Ethics in Theory and Practice, London, Merill Publication Company.
Msafiri Aidan G. (2007): Towards a Credible Environmental Ethics for Africa: A Tanzanian Perspective, Nairobi, CUEA Publications.
Peschke H. Karl (1992): Christian Ethics, Moral Theology in the light of VAT.II, Bangalore, Theological Publications in India.
Rae B. Scott (2009): Moral choices: An Introduction to Ethics, 3rd ed.; Michigan, Zondervan, Grand Rapids.
Sternberg (2004): Business Ethics in Action, Oxford, Oxford University Press.
Thiroux Jacques (1995): Ethics; Theory and Practice, New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc.
Robert Solomon C. (1992): Morality and the good life; an introduction to ethics through classical theories, 2nd ed. New York, McGraw-Hill, Inc.
Corey Gerald et al (2003): Issues and Ethics in the helping professions, 6th ed. Pacific Grove, USA, Brooks/Cole
Stuckelberger Christoph (2002): Global trade ethics, Geneva, WCC Publications.
Post a Comment